Innovative Food Analysis

Description

Innovative Food Analysis presents a modern perspective on the development of robust, effective and sensitive techniques to ensure safety, quality and traceability of foods to meet industry standards. Significant enhancements of analytical accuracy, precision, detection limits and sampling has expanded the practical range of food applications, hence this reference offers modern food analysis in view of new trends in analytical techniques and applications to support both the scientific community and industry professionals. This reference covers the latest topics across existing and new technologies, giving emphasis on food authenticity, traceability, food fraud, food quality, food contaminants, sensory and nutritional analytics, and more. Innovative Food Analysis Copyright Contents List of Contributors Preface 1 Compositional and nutritional analysis 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Carbohydrates 1.2.1 Definition of dietary carbohydrates and classification thereof 1.2.1.1 Dietary fiber 1.2.2 Labeling of carbohydrates in the EU 1.2.2.1 Labeling of sugars in the EU 1.2.2.2 Labeling of dietary fiber in the EU 1.2.3 The importance of carbohydrate analysis 1.2.4 Traditional and emerging methods for sample preparation in carbohydrate analysis 1.2.4.1 Carbohydrate extraction and fractionation Liquid–liquid extraction and green solvents Solid-phase extraction Supercritical fluid extraction Pressurized liquid extraction Field flow fractionation Chromatography-based methods Membranes 1.2.4.2 Acid hydrolysis and derivatization for traditional analysis of monosaccharides and oligosaccharides 1.2.5 Emerging technologies for carbohydrate analysis 1.2.5.1 Biosensors 1.2.5.2 Supercritical fluid chromatography and supercritical fluid chromatography-mass spectroscopy 1.2.5.3 Liquid chromatography: high performance anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection 1.2.5.4 Hyperspectral imaging 1.2.6 Dietary fiber analysis 1.3 Fat and fatty acids 1.3.1 Definition of dietary fat and sources thereof 1.3.2 Labeling of fats in the EU 1.3.3 The importance of fat analysis 1.3.4 Traditional methods for fat analysis 1.3.4.1 Total fat content 1.3.4.2 Fat characterization 1.3.5 Emerging methods for fat extraction and fractionation 1.3.5.1 Accelerated solvent extraction 1.3.5.2 Supercritical fluid extraction 1.3.6 Emerging technologies for fat analysis 1.3.6.1 Infrared spectroscopy 1.3.6.2 Raman spectroscopy 1.3.6.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance 1.3.6.4 X-ray microtomography 1.3.6.5 Hyperspectral imaging 1.3.7 Lipid oxidation and food analysis 1.4 Minerals 1.4.1 Definition of minerals and sources thereof 1.4.2 Labeling of minerals in the EU 1.4.3 Ash analysis 1.4.4 Analysis of minerals of nutritional interest 1.4.4.1 Traditional methods 1.4.4.2 New frontiers in analysis of minerals of nutritional interest 1.5 Proteins 1.5.1 Definition of dietary proteins and sources thereof 1.5.2 Labeling of proteins in the EU 1.5.3 The importance of protein analysis 1.5.4 Traditional methods for dietary protein analysis 1.5.5 New priorities in protein analysis 1.5.5.1 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays 1.5.5.2 Immuno- and biosensors 1.5.5.3 Mass spectrometry 1.6 Water 1.6.1 Water content in foods 1.6.2 Water content determination 1.6.2.1 Traditional versus emerging methods 1.7 Conclusions References 2 Bioactive component analysis 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Polyphenols 2.2.1 Sample pretreatment 2.2.2 Extraction of polyphenols 2.2.3 Isolation of polyphenols 2.2.4 Analysis of polyphenols 2.2.4.1 Spectrophotometric methods 2.2.4.2 Chromatographic methods 2.2.4.3 Other analysis methods 2.3 Carotenoids 2.3.1 Extraction and isolation of carotenoids 2.3.2 Analysis of carotenoids 2.4 Vitamins 2.4.1 Pretreatment, extraction, and isolation of samples 2.4.2 Analysis of vitamins 2.4.2.1 Bioassay methods 2.4.2.2 Microbiological methods 2.4.2.3 Chemical methods 2.5 Omega-3 fatty acids 2.5.1 Pretreatment and extraction of samples 2.5.2 Analysis of omega-3 fatty acids 2.5.2.1 GC analysis 2.5.2.2 Other analysis methods 2.6 Organic acids 2.6.1 Extraction and analysis of organic acids 2.7 Nucleosides and nucleotides 2.7.1 Pretreatment and extraction of sample 2.7.2 Analysis of nucleosides and nucleotides 2.7.2.1 Chromatographic analysis 2.7.2.2 Capillary electrophoresis analysis 2.8 Phytosterols 2.8.1 Pretreatment, extraction, and analysis of phytosterols 2.9 Conclusions and future perspectives References 3 Analytical technologies in sugar and carbohydrate processing 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Analytical techniques for analyzing sugars and carbohydrates in sugar crops 3.2.1 Sugar beet 3.2.2 Sugarcane 3.2.3 Fruits 3.2.4 Maple trees 3.2.5 Sweeteners (fruits, honey, cereals) 3.3 Application of spectroscopy and chemometric data analyses for assessment of quality parameters of sugar commodities 3.3.1 Statistical terms used to measure the accuracy of visible to near-infrared radiation spectroscopy regression models 3.3.2 Procedure and necessary treatment of spectroscopic data 3.3.3 Data collection 3.3.4 Data exploratory methods 3.3.4.1 Outlier detection 3.3.4.2 Principal component analysis 3.3.4.3 Spectral data preprocessing techniques 3.3.4.4 Spectral noise removal techniques 3.3.4.5 Spectral derivatives and transformations 3.3.4.6 Modeling 3.3.4.7 Quantitative models 3.3.4.8 Multiple linear regression 3.3.4.9 Principal component regression 3.3.4.10 Partial least squares regression 3.3.4.11 Classification or discrimination models 3.3.4.12 Principal component analysis 3.3.4.13 Soft independent modeling of class analogy 3.3.4.14 Robustness of models 3.4 Topical methods of extracting sugars and carbohydrates from sugar crops 3.5 Novel analytical technologies for determining the sugars and carbohydrates in secondary products 3.5.1 Determination of sugars or carbohydrates from secondary products 3.5.2 Determination of syrup adulteration 3.5.2.1 Adulteration of honey syrup 3.5.2.2 Adulteration of corn syrup 3.5.2.3 Adulteration of beet syrup 3.5.2.4 Adulteration of rice syrup 3.6 Research challenges in technologies applied for assessment of sugar contents in secondary products 3.7 Future perspectives and conclusions References 4 Sample preparation methods 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Sample pretreatment techniques 4.3 Targeted sample pretreatment techniques with high specificity for target analytes 4.4 Quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe methods 4.5 Conclusions Abbreviations References 5 Flow-based food analytical methods 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Flow-based methods of analysis 5.2.1 Modes of flow-based analysis 5.2.2 Sample pretreatment using flow-based methods and hyphenated flow methods 5.3 Representative applications of flow-based methods to food analysis 5.3.1 Nutrients and antinutrients 5.3.1.1 Sugars 5.3.1.2 Total phosphorus and nitrogen 5.3.1.3 Aminoacids 5.3.1.4 Vitamins 5.3.1.5 Antinutrients 5.3.2 Inorganic species 5.3.2.1 Cations 5.3.2.2 Anions 5.3.3 Additives, preservatives, and adulterants 5.3.4 Acidity 5.3.5 Antioxidant capacity 5.3.6 Pesticides 5.3.7 Pharmaceuticals 5.3.8 Miscellaneous 5.4 Conclusions References 6 Categories of food additives and analytical techniques for their determination 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Food additives 6.2.1 Regulators of acidity 6.2.2 Anticaking agents 6.2.3 Antifoaming agents 6.2.4 Antioxidants 6.2.5 Bulking agents 6.2.6 Carbonation agent 6.2.7 Carrier 6.2.8 Appearance control and clarifying agents 6.2.9 Colorants 6.2.10 Color retention agents 6.2.11 Emulsifiers 6.2.12 Firming agents 6.2.13 Flavor enhancers 6.2.14 Bleaching and flour treatment agents 6.2.15 Foaming agents 6.2.16 Gelling agents 6.2.17 Glazing agents 6.2.18 Humectants 6.2.19 Preservatives and antimicrobial agents 6.2.20 Propellants 6.2.21 Raising agents 6.2.22 Sequestrant or chelating agents 6.2.23 Stabilizers 6.2.24 Sweetener 6.2.25 Thickener 6.3 Steps in the analysis of food additives 6.3.1 Sampling 6.3.2 Sample preparation 6.3.3 Sample pretreatments 6.3.4 Analytical techniques choices 6.3.5 Analytical parameters or validation parameters 6.4 Analytical techniques used in food additive analysis 6.4.1 Spectroscopic techniques 6.4.1.1 Ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy 6.4.1.2 Near-infrared spectroscopy 6.4.1.3 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy 6.4.1.4 Raman spectroscopy 6.4.2 Chromatographic techniques 6.4.2.1 Gas chromatography 6.4.2.2 Liquid chromatography 6.4.3 Electroanalytical techniques 6.5 Conclusions Acknowledgments Dedication References 7 Analysis of food Additives 7.1 Function of food additives 7.2 Classification of food additives 7.3 Examples of food additives 7.4 Regulation and measurements of food additives 7.5 Analysis of food additives 7.5.1 Analysis of food colorants 7.5.1.1 Amaranth 7.5.1.2 Tartrazine 7.5.1.3 Indigo carmine 7.5.1.4 Sunset yellow 7.5.1.5 Other colorants 7.5.2 Analysis of preservatives 7.5.2.1 Benzoic acid and its sodium salt 7.5.2.2 Parabens 7.5.2.3 Nitrite 7.5.2.4 Other preservatives 7.5.3 Analysis of sweeteners 7.5.3.1 Steviol glycosides 7.5.3.2 Sodium saccharin 7.5.3.3 Aspartame 7.5.3.4 Other sweeteners 7.5.4 Analysis of antioxidant 7.5.4.1 Butylated hydroxyanisole 7.5.4.2 Butylated hydroxytoluene 7.5.4.3 Propyl gallate 7.5.4.4 Tert-butyl hydroquinone 7.5.4.5 Other antioxidants 7.6 Analysis of other food additives 7.7 Prospects for the analysis of food additives References 8 Innovations in analytical methods for food authenticity 8.1 Authentication of food products 8.1.1 Traceability for preventing adulteration 8.1.2 Labeling and compositional regulations 8.2 Revision of analytical methods for food authentication 8.2.1 Coffee 8.2.2 Honey 8.2.3 Milk and dairy products 8.2.4 Alcoholic beverages 8.2.5 Nuts 8.2.6 Fruit and vegetables 8.2.7 Fruit juices 8.2.8 Herb and spices 8.2.9 Meat 8.2.9.1 Indicators related with the animal of origin 8.2.9.2 Indicators related with meat processing 8.2.9.3 Indicators related to the final product 8.2.9.4 Current trends in meat authentication 8.2.10 Sea products 8.2.11 Edible vegetable oils 8.2.12 Cereals 8.2.12.1 Chemical composition 8.2.12.2 Cereal origin 8.2.12.3 Future trends in cereal authentication 8.2.12.4 Genetically modified organisms 8.2.13 Food supplements 8.3 Conclusions References 9 Food traceability 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Traceability systems 9.2.1 Document-based systems 9.2.2 Information and communication technology 9.2.3 Alphanumerical codes 9.2.4 Barcodes 9.2.5 Holograms 9.2.6 Radio-frequency identification 9.2.7 Nanotechnology 9.2.8 Nuclear techniques 9.3 Traceability analysis 9.3.1 Immunoassays 9.3.2 DNA-polymerase chain reaction methods 9.3.3 Omics 9.3.4 Isotope ratio analysis 9.3.4.1 Meat 9.3.4.2 Cereals 9.3.4.3 Olive oil 9.3.4.4 Dairy products 9.3.4.5 Wine 9.4 Conclusions References 10 Targeted and untargeted analytical techniques coupled with chemometric tools for the evaluation of the quality and authe... 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Rheological methods 10.3 Chromatographic techniques 10.3.1 High-performance liquid chromatography 10.3.2 Gas chromatography 10.4 Thermal analysis methods 10.5 Fluorescence spectroscopy 10.5.1 Milk and milk products 10.5.2 Meat and meat products 10.5.3 Fish and fish products 10.5.4 Edible oils 10.5.5 Cereals and cereal products 10.6 Mid-infrared spectroscopy 10.6.1 Dairy products 10.6.2 Meat and meat products 10.6.3 Cereals and cereal products 10.6.4 Edible oils 10.6.5 Sugar and honey 10.7 Visible and near-infrared 10.7.1 Milk and dairy products 10.7.2 Meat and meat products 10.7.3 Fish and fish products 10.8 Nuclear magnetic resonance 10.8.1 Milk and milk products 10.8.2 Meat and fish products 10.9 Microscopic methods 10.10 Conclusion List of abbreviation References 11 Food pathogens 11.1 Genome sequencing 11.1.1 Resequencing 11.1.2 De novo sequencing 11.2 RNA sequencing 11.3 Bioinformatics analysis 11.3.1 Bioinformatics analysis of genomic data 11.3.2 Bioinformatics analysis of RNA sequencing data 11.4 The application of innovative analysis on Enterobacter 11.4.1 Food pathogen Escherichia coli 11.4.2 Food pathogen Cronobacter sakazakii 11.4.3 Application of genome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis on Cronobacter sakazakii 11.4.4 Application of RNA sequencing and bioinformatics analysis on Cronobacter sakazakii 11.5 The application of innovative analysis on Staphylococcus aureus 11.5.1 Food pathogen Staphylococcus aureus 11.5.2 Application of RNA sequencing and bioinformatics analysis 11.6 The application of innovative analysis on Pseudomonas 11.6.1 Food pathogen Pseudomonas 11.6.2 Food spoilage bacteria Pseudomonas 11.6.3 Application of genome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis on Pseudomonas aeruginosa 11.6.4 Application of genome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis on Pseudomonas putida 11.7 The application of innovative analysis on Bacillus 11.7.1 Food spoilage bacteria Bacillus 11.7.2 Application of genome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis on Bacillus cereus 11.7.3 Application of genome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis on Bacillus thuringiensis 11.8 The application of innovative analysis on lactic acid bacteria 11.8.1 Food spoilage lactic acid bacteria 11.8.2 Application of genome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis on Lactobacillus acetotolerans 11.8.3 Application of genome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis on Lactobacillus casei 11.8.4 Application of genome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis on Lactobacillus harbinensis 11.8.5 Application of RNA sequencing and bioinformatics analysis on Lactobacillus acetotolerans 11.9 Analysis strategy for food pathogens 11.10 Conclusion References Further reading 12 Sensory analysis using electronic tongues 12.1 Electrochemical sensors in sensory analysis 12.2 Electrochemical devices 12.2.1 General principles 12.2.1.1 Potentiometry 12.2.1.2 Voltammetry and amperometry 12.2.1.3 Impedance spectroscopy 12.2.2 Electronic tongues and sensor arrays: design and development 12.2.2.1 Electronic tongue 12.2.2.2 BioE-tongues 12.2.2.3 Aptamers and aptasensors 12.2.3 Data processing—chemometric methods 12.2.4 Electrochemical sensor device applications 12.2.4.1 Pharmaceutical applications 12.2.4.2 Food industry application 12.2.4.3 Other applications 12.3 Conclusions and future perspectives Acknowledgments References 13 Hyperspectral imaging techniques for noncontact sensing of food quality 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Theory of near infrared-based techniques and fundamentals of hyperspectral imaging 13.2.1 Acquisition modes of hyperspectral images 13.2.2 Main components of the hyperspectral imaging system 13.2.3 Data handling 13.2.4 Hyperspectral image analysis 13.2.4.1 Image calibration and preprocessing 13.2.4.2 Image segmentation and extraction of useful information 13.2.4.3 Chemometrics and multivariate analysis 13.2.4.4 Spectral pretreatment 13.2.4.5 Evaluation of prediction or classification models 13.2.4.6 Application of calibrations: chemical images 13.2.5 Advantages and limitations of hyperspectral imaging 13.3 Applications of hyperspectral imaging for food quality assessment 13.3.1 Near infrared in agriculture and food research and origins of hyperspectral imaging applications 13.3.2 Applications of hyperspectral imaging for food quality assessment 13.3.3 Online applications of near infrared spectroscopy and hyperspectral imaging 13.3.4 Case studies of hyperspectral imaging applied to granular food commodities 13.3.4.1 Wheat quality inspection 13.3.4.2 Cocoa beans quality inspection 13.3.4.3 Coffee quality inspection 13.4 Future trends of hyperspectral imaging applications 13.5 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Further reading Index