Cities and Mega Risks: COVID-19 and Climate Change

Description

This book focuses on the emergence of COVID-19 and climate change as twin mega risks to cities of both developed and developing countries. The work analyses how the pandemic has transformed city functions, promoted remote working, and affected socializing, education and learning patterns, recreation, as well as shopping and entertainment. It discusses the lessons learned from these two Mega Risks, the evolution of urban patterns and functions in their wake, and provides visionary thinking for the improvement of cities from the experiences gained. The COVID-19 Pandemic and climate change are both posing serious threats to cities’ future. Together, they demand changes in the ways cities’ function and operate. The work presents a case for a better understanding of the twin mega risks, the magnitude of their impacts, the responses of cities in combating these issues, and planning strategies for preparing, mitigating and adapting to these and future risks. The book is designed to provide reliable resource materials for a wide audience such as planners, professional practitioners, scientists, students, teachers and researchers working in various fields including geography, environmental sciences, social sciences, policy and planning. Introduction Key Messages Structure and Framework Acknowledgments Contents List of Figures List of Tables Part I: Overview: Risks, Cities, and Sustainable Development 1: Risks, Resilience, and Sustainable Development 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Risk Trends and Dimensions 1.2.1 Risks in History 1.2.2 Risks and Disasters in the Twenty-First Century 1.2.3 Risks and Disasters in 2020 1.2.4 Health Risks—Epidemics and Pandemics 1.2.5 Myth of the Twenty-First Century on Epidemics and Pandemics 1.3 Coronavirus and Climate Change: The Twin Mega Risks 1.3.1 Drivers of Mega Risks 1.3.2 Preparedness to Face Mega Risks 1.3.3 Similarities and Differences in Twin Mega Risks 1.4 Risk Management and Resilience 1.4.1 Resilience Against Risks 1.4.2 Risk Preparedness and Management 1.5 Risk Management and Global Agenda on Risk and Sustainable Development 1.5.1 Global Institutions 1.5.2 International Agenda for Risk Management and DRR 1.5.2.1 International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) 1990–1999 1.5.2.2 International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) 1.5.2.3 Hyogo Framework of Action (2005–2015) 1.5.2.4 Post HFA International Agenda on DRR 1.5.2.5 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2 030 1.5.2.6 Paris Agreement on Climate Change 1.5.2.7 Sustainable Development Agenda 2030 1.5.2.8 Addis Ababa Action Agenda 1.5.2.9 New Urban Agenda 1.5.2.10 Agenda for Humanity 1.5.3 Prospects in the Implementation of Global Agenda 1.6 Conclusion References 2: Cities’ Sustainability in a Risk-Prone World 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Perspectives on Cities 2.2.1 Cities as Human Habitat 2.2.2 Cities as Centers of Economic and Political Power 2.3 Mega Risks and Cities Transformation 2.3.1 COVID-19 2.3.1.1 Triggering Factors 2.3.1.2 City Size and COVID-19 2.3.1.3 Economic and Social Effects 2.3.2 Climate Change 2.3.2.1 Range of Impacts 2.3.2.2 Economic Losses 2.4 Cities’ Response to Mega Risks 2.4.1 Coronavirus Pandemic 2.4.1.1 Immediate Response 2.4.1.2 Constraints/Predicaments 2.4.1.3 Rescue and Recovery 2.4.2 Climate Change 2.4.2.1 Cities and Climate Emergency 2.4.2.2 Climate Action and Mitigation 2.4.2.3 Cities and Climate Adaptation 2.5 Preparedness for Handling Urban Mega Risks 2.6 Conclusion References Part II: Overview: Mega Risks Monitoring, Management, and Sustainable Development 3: Mega Risks: Monitoring for Management and Sustainability 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Monitoring and Managing COVID-19 3.2.1 GIS Use in Monitoring/Managing Diseases 3.2.1.1 Origin and History 3.2.1.2 Multidimensional Use in the Pandemic 3.2.2 Observational, Analytical, and Display Tools 3.2.2.1 Maps 3.2.2.2 Web-Based Dashboards and Interactive Maps 3.2.2.3 Satellite Navigation and Communication-Based Devices 3.2.2.4 Robotics and Drones 3.3 Monitoring and Management of Climate Change 3.3.1 Multidimensional Use of GIS 3.3.2 Observational, Analytical, and Display Tools 3.3.3 Monitoring and Preparedness to Face Risks 3.4 Conclusion References 4: Mega Risks: Digital Transformation and Sustainability 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Cities, Digitalization, and COVID-19 4.2.1 Bridging the Functional Gaps 4.2.2 Digital Technologies in the New Normal 4.2.2.1 Remote Working 4.2.2.2 Business and Industries 4.2.2.3 Education 4.2.2.4 Health 4.2.2.5 Governance and Public Administration 4.2.2.6 Social Media 4.2.3 Pressure on Networks and Resilience 4.2.3.1 Intensity of Pressure 4.2.3.2 Resilience to Stress 4.3 Climate Change, ICT, and Digital Technologies 4.3.1 Monitoring and Early Warning 4.3.1.1 World Weather Watch 4.3.1.2 Global Climate Observing System 4.3.2 Mitigation 4.3.3 Adaptation 4.4 Digital Technology, Ethical Considerations, and Other Issues 4.4.1 Infringement of Privacy and Personal Autonomy 4.4.2 Digital Divide 4.4.3 Cybersecurity 4.4.4 Spreading of Misinformation 4.4.5 Environmental and Social Impacts 4.5 Conclusion References Part III: Mega Risks, Urban Economic Development, and Sustainability 5: Mega Risks, Urban Economies, and Sustainability 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Impacts of Mega Risks on Urban Economy 5.2.1 Coronavirus and Urban Economy 5.2.1.1 Intensity of the Impact 5.2.1.2 Impact on Informal Economy and Urban Poor 5.2.1.3 Varied Sectoral Impacts 5.2.1.4 Differential Impacts Within a City 5.2.2 Climate Change and Urban Economy 5.2.2.1 Damage Cost 5.2.2.2 Intensity of the Impact 5.2.2.3 Impacts on Port Cities 5.2.2.4 Sectoral Impacts 5.3 Cities Response to Mega Risk 5.3.1 Economic Response to Coronavirus Pandemic 5.3.1.1 Rescue and Midterm Measures 5.3.1.2 Long-Term Strategies 5.3.1.3 Greening of Recovery and Development 5.3.2 Economic Response to Climate Crisis 5.3.2.1 Policies and Plans 5.3.2.2 Fiscal Instruments and Urban Climate Financing 5.4 Conclusion References 6: Mega Risks, Urban Energy Use, and Sustainable Development 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Energy Supply/Consumption 6.3 Urban Energy and Coronavirus 6.3.1 Pandemic Impacts on Urban Energy 6.3.2 Environmental Gains from Energy Use Reduction 6.3.3 Energy Lessons and Opportunities from the Pandemic 6.4 Energy’s Carbon Footprint and Climate Change 6.5 Urban Energy Policies/Strategies and Climate Change 6.5.1 Policy Framing and Setting Targets 6.5.2 Policy-Based Solutions in Urban Energy Management 6.5.2.1 Building and Construction 6.5.2.2 Transport Interventions 6.5.2.3 Technological Solutions 6.5.2.4 Renewable Adaptation and Innovation 6.5.2.5 Smart Energy Infrastructure 6.5.2.6 Circular Economy 6.5.2.7 Solutions Through Networking 6.6 Problems and Constraints in Undertaking Policy Initiatives 6.7 Conclusion References Part IV: Mega Risks, Urban Social Development, and Sustainability 7: Mega Risks and Urban Health System: Investment in Life 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Coronavirus Pandemic: Impacts and Response 7.2.1 Cities’ Vulnerabilities and Impacts 7.2.1.1 Spatial and Temporal Impacts 7.2.1.2 Pandemic Pressure on the Healthcare System 7.2.1.3 Pressure on Non-pandemic Healthcare Services 7.2.1.4 Health Costs of Pandemic 7.2.2 Response to the Health Impacts 7.2.2.1 Public/Governmental Response 7.2.2.2 Nongovernmental Response 7.2.2.3 Response Effectiveness 7.2.2.4 Preparedness Versus Response: Lessons Learned 7.2.2.5 Pandemic’s Future: Possible Scenarios 7.2.2.6 Vaccination and the Pandemic 7.3 Climate Change and Health: Impacts and Response 7.3.1 Impacts on Health 7.3.1.1 Temperature-Related Impacts 7.3.1.2 Extreme Climate-Related Events 7.3.1.3 Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases 7.3.1.4 Food and Water Supply Insecurity 7.3.1.5 Vector-Borne Diseases 7.3.1.6 Climate Change Impacts on Air Quality and Aeroallergens 7.3.1.7 Occupational Health 7.3.1.8 Stress and Psychological Problems 7.3.2 Response to Climate Change Impacts on Health 7.3.2.1 Mitigation and Adaptation Actions 7.3.2.2 Building Urban Climate Resilience 7.4 Conclusion References 8: Mega Risks, Education, Knowledge, and Sustainability 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Impact of COVID-19 on Education 8.2.1 Learning Losses 8.2.2 Other Related Losses 8.2.3 Teachers’ Predicament due to School Closures 8.2.4 Pressure on Parents 8.2.5 Inequality of Impacts 8.2.6 Impacts on Higher Education 8.3 Policy Response 8.3.1 Immediate Response: Introduction of Remote Learning 8.3.2 Disparity in Access to Devices and Means for Remote Learning 8.3.3 Remote Learning Problems 8.3.4 Recovery Actions 8.3.5 Long-Term Actions 8.4 Impact of Climate Change on Education 8.4.1 Direct Impacts 8.4.2 Indirect Impacts 8.4.3 Climate Change: Estimated Costs to the Education Sector 8.5 Response to Climatic Impacts 8.5.1 Emergency Coping 8.5.2 Medium- and Long-Term Actions 8.6 Conclusion References 9: Mega Risks, Social Protection, and Sustainability 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Social Impacts of Mega Risks in Cities 9.2.1 COVID-19 Social Impacts 9.2.1.1 Socioeconomic Insecurity 9.2.1.2 Sharpening Inequalities 9.2.2 Climate Change Social Impacts 9.2.2.1 Socioeconomic Insecurity 9.2.2.2 Sharpening Inequalities 9.2.2.3 Differential Impacts 9.3 Social Protection Policy Response to COVID-19 and Climate Change 9.3.1 COVID-19 and Social Protection Policy Response 9.3.1.1 Policy Measures Adopted by Governments 9.3.1.2 Challenges and Constraints 9.3.1.3 Contribution of NGOs, Charitable Organizations, Communities, and Businesses 9.3.2 Climate Change Response 9.3.2.1 Social Protections Programs and Climate Change 9.3.2.2 Coverage Gaps and Coping Approaches 9.3.2.3 Role of International Relief Organizations, Civil Society, and Private Sector Charities 9.4 Conclusion References Part V: Mega Risks, City Governance, and Vision for Cities of Tomorrow 10: Mega Risks, Urban Governance, and Sustainability 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Urban Governance and Coronavirus Pandemic 10.2.1 Governance Institutions and Practices 10.2.2 Institutional Mechanisms 10.2.2.1 Existing Institutional Mechanisms 10.2.2.2 New Institutional Mechanisms 10.2.3 Approaches and Practices 10.2.3.1 Centralized Versus Decentralized Approach 10.2.3.2 Coordination and Cooperation Approaches 10.2.4 Vertical Coordination Between Cities and Upper Tiers of Government 10.2.4.1 Cooperation in Implementing Healthcare Measures 10.2.4.2 Cooperation in Economic Policies/Measures 10.2.4.3 Cooperation in Social Policies/Measures 10.2.5 Intergovernmental Horizontal Coordination 10.2.5.1 Coordination Between Government and Non-state Actors 10.2.5.2 Community Engagement by Governments 10.2.6 Innovations in Governance Mechanisms 10.2.6.1 Digital Innovations and Urban Governance 10.2.6.2 Use of Soft Tools: Adjustment in Governance Mechanisms 10.2.7 Governance Challenges and Constraints 10.2.8 Governance Lessons from the Pandemic 10.3 Climate Change and Urban Governance 10.3.1 Historical Perspective 10.3.2 Enablers and Barrier to Climate Action 10.3.3 Vulnerability and Capacity Variation 10.3.4 Modes of Urban Climate Governance 10.3.5 Institutional Mechanism for Urban Climate Governance 10.3.6 Multilevel Urban Climate Governance 10.3.6.1 Models of Vertical Coordination on Climate Change 10.3.6.2 Horizontal Coordination on Climate Change 10.3.7 Achievements of Climate Governance 10.3.8 Governance Challenges and Constraints 10.4 Conclusion References 11: Vision of a Sustainable, Smart, and Resilient City 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Mega Risks and Urban Transformation Trends 11.3 Building Forward and Sustainable Development 11.3.1 Vision of a Sustainable Urban Economy 11.3.1.1 Sustainable Urban Economy and SDG Linkages 11.3.1.2 Monitoring and Tracking Economic Development 11.3.1.3 Sustainable Urban Development: Local Approaches 11.3.2 Vision of a Socially Resilient Inclusive City 11.3.2.1 Controlling Loss of Development Gains 11.3.2.2 Development Agenda on the Social Front 11.3.2.3 Social Sustainability and SDGs 11.3.3 Vision of an Environmentally Sustainable City 11.3.3.1 Environmental Sustainability and SDGs 11.3.3.2 Decoupling Resource Use from Development Process 11.3.3.3 Promoting Nature-Based Solutions 11.3.3.4 Climate Change and Green Recovery 11.3.3.5 Low-Carbon/GHG Economy and Climate Change 11.3.4 Vision of a Smart City 11.3.4.1 Smart City in Historical Perspective 11.3.4.2 Smart Technologies: Innovations and Applications 11.3.4.3 Mega Risks and Smart Technologies 11.3.4.4 Challenges and Issues 11.4 Vision of a Resilient City Design 11.4.1 Health Risks and City Design 11.4.1.1 Historical Perspective 11.4.1.2 Sanitary Movement 11.4.1.3 Garden City Movement 11.4.1.4 Towers in the Park 11.4.1.5 Architectural Modernism 11.4.1.6 Polycentric City 11.4.1.7 15-Minute City: An Emerging Concept 11.4.1.8 Diffusion of the Concept 11.4.2 Climate Change and Urban Design 11.4.3 Mega Risks: Public Spaces and Mobility Design 11.4.3.1 Public Spaces 11.4.3.2 Infrastructure and Transport 11.5 Conclusion References Index