The Landscape of the Sierra Nevada: A Unique Laboratory of Global Processes in Spain

Description

This book covers the landscape, geography and environment of the Sierra Nevada in Spain. The Sierra Nevada hosted the last glaciers in southern Europe. Today, it is one of the most important centers of plant diversity in the western Mediterranean and one of the most outstanding in Europe. This massif has ideal conditions to analyze past environments as well as the effects of global change on ecosystems. This can be seen in the large number of projects that are being conducted within the umbrella of the Sierra Nevada Global Change Observatory. This book summarizes all the scientific knowledge available about this massif, from the geomorphological and ecological perspectives to the recent spatial adaptive management and Open Science initiatives. Focusing on the very sensitive mountain environment of Sierra Nevada, the book intends to be a reference for many people interested in mountain processes. The audience would include scientists from all disciplines, but it would also target on an audience beyond the academia (territorial managers, environmentalists, mountaineers, politicians, technicians, etc.). Foreword Preface Introduction Why Write a Book About the Sierra Nevada? About This Book Contents A Unique Mountain 1 The Geographic Uniqueness of the Sierra Nevada in the Context of the Mid-Latitude Mountains Abstract 1 Sierra Nevada Within the Iberian Peninsula 2 The Massif of Sierra Nevada Acknowledgements References 2 Sierra Nevada, a Mediterranean Biodiversity Super Hotspot Abstract 1 Biodiversity, a Concept Beyond Species Lists 2 Sierra Nevada: A Unique Scenario for an Intense Evolutionary Drama 3 The Flora and the Fauna of Sierra Nevada in a Mediterranean Context 3.1 Plants 3.2 Invertebrates 3.3 Vertebrates 4 Living Together on a High Mountain: Community-Level Evolutionary and Ecological Correlates of Biodiversity 4.1 Phylogenetic Diversity in High Mountain Plant Assemblages 4.2 Plant Community Phylogenetics 4.3 Animal Community Phylogenetics 5 Role of Biotic Interactions in Plant Communities in Promoting Biodiversity 5.1 Pollination and Seed and Fruit Dispersal 5.2 Facilitative Interactions Among Plants 6 Biotic Interactions in Animal Communities 6.1 Invertebrates 6.2 Vertebrates 7 Paths to Biodiversity: Phylogenetic and Phylogeographical Cues for Biodiversity Accumulation 7.1 Plants 7.2 Animals 8 The Hidden Side of Biodiversity: Population Genetic Structure in Sierra Nevada and Its Drivers 8.1 Plants 8.2 Animals 9 Current Biodiversity Conservation in Sierra Nevada 10 Concluding Remarks Acknowledgements References 3 Singular Cultural Landscapes of the Sierra Nevada Abstract 1 Sierra Nevada as a Cultural Landscape: A Coevolutive Process, a Transformed Mountain Range 2 The Historical Evolution of the Occupation of Sierra Nevada 2.1 From Prehistory to the Fall of the Roman Empire: Little Data or Little Presence? 2.2 The ‘Assault’ of the Sierra Nevada During Late Antiquity 2.3 Islamic Conquest and Territorial Transformation During the Al-Andalus Period 2.4 Changes After the Castilian Conquest: The Expulsion of the Moriscos and the Stagnation of the Region 2.5 The Attack on the Communal and Liberal Policies 3 The Historical Management of Water as the Mainstay of the Territory 3.1 Careo Ditches: ‘Sowing’ and ‘Harvesting’ Water 3.2 Historical Irrigation Systems as the Centre of a Complex Socioecosystem 3.3 Livestock as a Necessary Complement to Subsistence and Soil Fertilization 3.4 Communal Governance Systems and Land Management 4 Concluding Comments Acknowledgements References 4 Scientific Knowledge Generated in Sierra Nevada: Bibliographic Review (1970–2021) Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Research in Sierra Nevada: Initial Scientific Contributions 2.1 First References to Sierra Nevada 2.2 Primary Biological Research 2.3 The Physical Environment 3 Bibliographic Review of the Scientific Literature in Sierra Nevada 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Methods and Review Protocol 3.3 General Overview of Scientific Publications 3.4 Thematic Analysis of the Dataset 3.5 Sierra Nevada Global-Change Observatory and Scientific Knowledge of Bibliographic Review 4 Development of Representative Case Studies 4.1 Glacial Geomorphological Dynamics 4.2 Palaeoenvironment and Palaeoclimate in Sierra Nevada 4.3 Limnological Studies 4.4 Plant–Animal Interactions: Ecological and Evolutionary Consequences 4.5 Biology and Ecology of Capra pyrenaica 5 Conclusions Acknowledgements References Case Study 4.1. Antarctic, Arctic and Alpine Environments (ANTALP)—Sierra Nevada Case Study 4.2. Paleoenvironmental and Paleoclimate—Sierra Nevada Case Study 4.3. Limnological Studies Case Study 4.4. Plant-Animal Interactions: Hormathophylla spinosa Study Case Case Study 4.5. Biology and Ecology of Capra Pyrenaica The Physical Setting 5 Geological Setting of Sierra Nevada Abstract 1 The Geological Setting 2 Sierra Nevada in the Framework of the Betic-Rif Cordillera 3 Lithology, Tectonic Units and Deep Structure of Sierra Nevada 3.1 The Nevado-Filabride Complex 3.2 The Alpujarride Complex 3.3 The Neogene-Quaternary Basins 4 Tectonic Deformation and Evolution 4.1 Ductile Structures (Foliations, Lineations and Folds) 4.2 Brittle Deformations (Joints and Main Low-Angle and High-Angle Faults) 4.3 Evolution of Sierra Nevada 5 The Role of Tectonics Shaping the Landscape of the Sierra Nevada 6 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 6 The Impact of Glacial Development on the Landscape of the Sierra Nevada Abstract 1 The Discovery of Glacial Landforms 2 The Geographical Context 3 The Distribution of Paleoglaciers and the Glacial Landscape 3.1 Glaciers Confined to the Valley Heads 3.2 Weakly Glaciated Plateaus 4 The Chronology of Glacial Landforms 5 Concluding Comments: The Uniqueness of Glacial Development in the Sierra Nevada and in the Context of the Iberian Region as a Whole Acknowledgements References 7 Reconstruction of Past Environment and Climate Using Wetland Sediment Records from the Sierra Nevada Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Sierra Nevada Sites 2.2 Sedimentary Records: Sediment Collection, Chronology, Lithology and Magnetic Susceptibility 2.3 Inorganic Geochemistry 2.4 Organic Geochemistry—Bulk Sediments and Specific Organic Lipids 2.5 Palynological Analysis 2.6 Charcoal 3 Results 3.1 Age Control of the Sedimentary Sequences 3.2 Lithology and Magnetic Susceptibility (MS) 3.3 Inorganic Geochemistry 3.4 Organic Geochemistry 3.5 Palynological Analysis 3.6 Charcoal 4 Discussion 4.1 Age of the Sedimentary Sequences 4.2 Changes in Lithology and MS in Relation with Climate and Human Impact 4.3 Inorganic Geochemistry—Holocene Evolution of Lake-Level Changes, Runoff and Dust Deposition in Relation with Climate Change and Human Impact 4.4 Organic Geochemistry—Total Organic Carbon Content and C/N Ratio in Relation with Climate, Temperature Estimations and Precipitation Patterns Derived by Specific Organic Lipids 4.5 Palynological Analysis—Holocene Forest, Landscape and Lake Level Variations Due to Climate Change and Human Impact 4.5.1 Millennial-Scale Climate Variability 4.5.2 Human Impact on Vegetation, Grazing and Cultivation 4.6 Charcoal Analysis—Fire Activity Related to Climate and Fuel Variability 5 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 8 Ancient and Present-Day Periglacial Environments in the Sierra Nevada Abstract 1 The Discovery of Periglacial Landforms 2 The Geographical Context 3 The Periglacial Environment 3.1 Summit Surfaces 3.2 Glacial Cirques 3.3 Slopes and Valley Floors 4 Monitoring of Present-Day Periglacial Processes 5 The Chronology of Inactive Periglacial Landforms 6 Concluding Comments: The Impact of Periglacial Dynamics in the Landscape of the Sierra Nevada Acknowledgements References 9 Climate Variability and Trends Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Observational Data 3 Main Climate Characteristics 4 Atmospheric Circulation Drivers 5 Recent Precipitation and Temperature Evolution 6 Trends in Other Variables Related with the Hydrological Cycle 7 Climate Projections 8 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 10 Snow Dynamics, Hydrology, and Erosion Abstract 1 Sierra Nevada Hydrology in a World Context 2 Snow Dynamics in a Mediterranean Region 2.1 Snow in a Mediterranean Region: Why a Special Regime? 2.2 Snow Monitoring in Sierra Nevada: A Historical Perspective 2.3 Recent Evolution and Future Perspectives 3 Hydrology and Snow Signature 3.1 The Snow Signature in the Hydrological Regime in Sierra Nevada: A Diverse Scenario 3.2 Seasonality of the Fluvial Regime: The Coevolution of a Natural System and Traditional Man-Made Waterways 4 Soil Erosion and Transport Processes 4.1 Soil Loss in Semi-arid High Mountainous Environments 4.2 Sediment Yield in Sierra Nevada and Impacts Downstream 4.3 Long-Term Assessment of Erosion and Transport Processes 5 Final Remarks Acknowledgements References Concluding Notes: The Physical Setting: From Natural Geomorphologic and Climatic Dynamics to Anthropogenic Changes Biotic Responses to Recent Changes: Terrestrial Ecosystems as Laboratories of Global Change 11 Altitudinal Patterns and Changes in the Composition of High Mountain Plant Communities Abstract 1 Characteristics of the Alpine Belt 2 Alpine Flora of Sierra Nevada 3 Alpine Plant Communities 3.1 Low Shrubland Cushion-Like Communities 3.2 Psicroxerophylous Pasturelands 3.3 Rock Crevices and Scree Communities 3.4 Synanthropic Communities 3.5 Alpine Hygrophilous Pasturelands “Borreguiles” 4 Current and Projected Changes in Alpine Vegetation of Sierra Nevada 4.1 Phenological Changes 4.2 Altitudinal Movements 4.3 Increasing Competition and Hybridization as Threats for Alpine Species 4.4 Changes in the Composition of Plant Communities at Summit Areas 5 Direct Anthropogenic Drivers of Changing Patterns in Plant Communities 5.1 Livestock Grazing 5.2 Mountain Agriculture 5.3 Outdoor Activities and Infrastructure Construction 6 Concluding Remarks and Guidelines for Conservation and Adaptive Management Acknowledgements References 12 Responses of Animal Populations and Communities to Climate Change and Land-Use Shifts Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Avian Communities Case Study 2.1 Shifts in Elevational Distribution 2.2 Temporal Shifts Observed in Sierra Nevada in a Regional and Continental Context 2.3 Long-Term Bird Responses to Climatic and Land-Use Changes 3 Pine Processionary Moth Case Study 3.1 Temporal Population Shifts (Outbreaks) in Relation to Climatic Change 3.2 Shifts in Elevational and Host Pine Distribution 3.3 Response of PPM to Changing Scenarios 4 Concluding Comments Acknowledgements References 13 Forest Dynamics Under Land-Use and Climate Change Scenarios Abstract 1 The Forests of Sierra Nevada 2 Changes in Forest Structure and Management Over the Last Century 3 Forest Responses to Recent Changes in Climate 3.1 Recruitment Alterations in Response to Climate Changes 3.2 Observed and Forecasted Changes in Tree Growth 3.3 Implications for Elevational Migrations of Forests 4 Consequences of Climate and Land-Use Changes for Biotic Interactions 4.1 Biotic Interactions as Plant-Community Filters 5 Concluding Remarks Acknowledgements References 14 Restoration of Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems After Major Disturbances: The Lanjarón Post-fire Experiment Over 15 Years of Succession Abstract 1 Introduction 2 The Lanjarón Post-fire Experiment 3 The Role of Burnt Wood as a Disturbance Legacy: Mechanisms that Promote Resilience 4 Biodiversity Response to Post-fire Management 5 Effect of Post-fire Management on Ecosystem Services 6 Conclusions Acknowledgements References Biotic Responses to Recent Changes: Aquatic Ecosystems as Laboratories of Global Change 15 Aquatic Animal Communities of Watercourses from Sierra Nevada Abstract 1 The Lotic Ecosystems of Sierra Nevada 2 Who Lives There? 2.1 State of the Art: Current Knowledge of the Best-Studied Fluvial Macroinvertebrate Groups 2.2 Biodiversity of EPTC 2.3 Biogeographical Overview of EPTC 2.4 Threats and Conservation Status of EPTC 2.5 The Brown Trout: Threats and Conservation Status 3 Changes at the Population and Community Level 3.1 Key Ecological Factors Acting on Macroinvertebrate Communities 3.2 Key Ecological Factors Acting on the Macroinvertebrate Populations 3.3 Key Ecological Factors Acting on the Brown Trout Populations 3.4 Connecting the Elemental and the Ecosystem Level 4 Concluding Remarks: What Else Can Be Done? Acknowledgements References 16 High Mountain Lakes as Remote Sensors of Global Change Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Physico-chemical Features 2.1 Elevation and Catchment Areas 2.2 Remoteness 2.3 Location in a Climate Change Hot Spot 2.4 Proximity to Major Sources of Limiting Nutrients 2.5 Diversity of Lakes and Surrounding Habitats 2.6 Easy Applicability of Monitoring Approaches 3 Biological Features 4 Observational Approaches 5 Experimental Approaches 5.1 P-addition and Role of Stoichiometry 5.2 P-addition Gradient and UVR 5.3 P-addition Mode and UVR 6 Integrating the Observational and Experimental Approaches 7 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 17 Paleolimnological Indicators of Global Change Abstract 1 Suitability of Sierra Nevada Lakes to Study Global Change 2 Synchrony of Change Among Paleolimnological Proxies and with Climatic Variables 3 Environmental Changes in Sierra Nevada Lakes Linked to Climate Change 3.1 Algal Biomass Increase 3.2 Changes in Species Composition 3.3 Changes in Lake Hydrology and More Favorable Conditions for Invertebrate Growth 3.4 Indicators of Increasing Drought in Lake Catchments 3.5 Indicators of Lake Water Alkalinization 3.6 Concluding Remarks Acknowledgements References 18 Atmospheric Inputs and Biogeochemical Consequences in High-Mountain Lakes Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 Idiosyncrasy of Sierra Nevada Lakes 1.2 Seasonal, Interannual, and Recent Trends in Atmospheric Inputs on Sierra Nevada 2 Chemical Footprints of the Atmospheric Inputs in Sierra Nevada’s Lakes 3 Footprints of Organic Matter Atmospheric Inputs in High-Mountain Lakes 4 Biological Footprints of the Atmospheric Inputs in High-Mountain Lakes 4.1 Plankton Responses to Atmospheric Deposition in Sierra Nevada’s Lakes 4.2 Atmospheric Deposition of Microorganisms: Long-Range Transport and Seed-Bank for Future Environmental Changes 5 Conclusions Acknowledgements References Concluding Notes: Ecosystems of Sierra Nevada in the Anthropocene: A New Cocktail of Species and Ecological Interactions Looking Forward: New Approaches in Research, Management and Social Connection 19 Remote Sensing in Sierra Nevada: From Abiotic Processes to Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functions and Services Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 Remote Sensing Definition and Types 1.2 Applications of Remote Sensing in Environmental Sciences 1.3 Usefulness of Remote Sensing for Managing Protected Areas 2 Materials and Methods 3 Results 3.1 Overview on the Remote Sensing Research in Sierra Nevada 4 Discussion 4.1 Abiotic Processes 4.2 Biodiversity Composition and Structure 4.3 Ecosystem Processes and Functions 4.4 Ecosystem Services 5 Concluding Remarks and Research Gaps Acknowledgements References 20 Managing the Uniqueness of Sierra Nevada Ecosystems Under Global Change: The Value of in situ Scientific Research Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Research and Management for Ibex Conservation 2.1 Identification of the Problem 2.2 The Way This Problem Had Traditionally Been Addressed 2.3 Current Management Based on Research 3 Plan for the Conservation and Restoration of Juniper Scrublands 3.1 Identification of the Problem 3.2 The Way This Problem Had Traditionally Been Addressed 3.3 Current Management Based on Research 3.3.1 Lessons from Restoration Experiments 4 Plan for Post-Fire Ecological Restoration 4.1 Identification of the Problem 4.2 The Way This Problem Had Traditionally Been Addressed 4.3 Current Management Based on Research 4.3.1 Promoting Spatial Heterogeneity 4.3.2 Encouraging Phylogenetic and Functional Diversity 4.3.3 Enhancing Natural Regeneration Capacity 5 Plan for Naturalizing Pine Plantations and Developing Decision-Making Tools 5.1 Identification of the Problem 5.2 The Way This Problem Had Traditionally Been Addressed 5.3 Current Management Based on Research 6 Implications of Diversifying Pine Plantations in Terms of Ecosystem Services 7 Concluding Comments Acknowledgements References 21 Local Ecological Knowledge and the Sustainable Co-Management of Sierra Nevada’s Social-Ecological System Abstract 1 The Contribution of Local Knowledge Systems to the Sustainable Co-Management of Social-Ecological Systems 2 Understanding the Historical Roots of Sierra Nevada’s Social-Ecological System: Water Management as a Landscape Architect 3 The Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries: Big Transformations Driving Social-Ecological System Decay and LEK Erosion 4 LEK Role in Preserving the Current Social-Ecological System of Sierra Nevada 5 The Future of LEK in the Context of Global Environmental Change 6 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 22 Data Model, E-Infrastructure Services, and the Virtual Research Environment (VRE) Abstract 1 Introduction 2 The FAIR Principles 2.1 Data Management Plan (DMP) 2.2 Metadata and Data Model 3 Virtual Research Environment (VRE) 4 VRE Target Profiles: Researchers, Managers, and the General Public 5 Virtual Laboratories (VLABs) 6 Generation of Knowledge Supported by the Use of Virtual Laboratories (VLABs) 7 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 23 Advancing Open Science in Sierra Nevada: Current Citizen Science Campaigns Abstract 1 Open Science in the Era of a Changing Earth 2 Citizen Science and the Urgency of Acquiring Data 3 Case Study 1: Long-Term Research of High Mountain Lakes 3.1 Glacial Lakes Under Threat 3.2 Scope and Goals 3.3 Scientific and Practical Information 3.4 Major Achievements 4 Case Study 2: Monitoring Butterflies in Sierra Nevada 4.1 Scope and Goals 4.2 Scientific and Practical Information 4.3 Major Achievements 5 Case Study 3: Evaluation of Stream Ecological Status Using Benthic Macroinvertebrates 5.1 Scope and Goals 5.2 Scientific and Practical Information 5.3 Major Achievements 6 Lessons Learned from the Case Studies 7 Concluding Remarks: Recommendations for Citizen Science Campaigns Acknowledgements References 24 Filling the Gaps in Research, Monitoring, Management and Social Connection Abstract 1 Mountain Global-Change Lab 2 Research and Monitoring in Sierra Nevada 2.1 Monitoring in Sierra Nevada 2.2 Smart EcoMountains, a Thematic Center of LifeWatch-ERIC 2.3 Back to Hubbard Brooks 2.4 New Conceptual and Technological Approaches: Exploring Fine Spatio-Temporal Heterogeneity in Mountain Ecosystems 2.5 A Long-Term and Broad-Scale Vision 2.6 Looking for Essential Variables to Evaluate Exposure, Vulnerability and Adaptation to Global Changes 3 Use of New Technological Tools: Remote Sensors, Artificial Intelligence, Virtual Research Environments 4 From Applied Science to User-Oriented Solutions and Co-Design 5 Knowledge Mobilization 6 Epilogue: Towards the Mountain Community Acknowledgements References Concluding Notes: Research, Adaptive Conservation and Enjoyment of Sierra Nevada in the Anthropocene Index Untitled