Time and Stone: The Emergence and Development of Megaliths and Megalithic Societies in Europe

Description

This analysis is concerned with the dating of megaliths in Europe and is based on 2410 available radiocarbon results from pre-megalithic and megalithic sites, and to the megaliths contemporaneous contexts and the application of a Bayesian statistical framework. It is, so far, the largest existing attempt to establish a supra-regional synthesis on the emergence and development of megaliths in Europe. Its aim is to assist in the clarification of an over 200-year-old, ongoing research debate. Copyright Page Contents Chapter 1 Megaliths and megalithic societies in Europe Introduction and central research questions Theories on the emergence and spreading of megaliths Investigated megalithic regions Figure 1.1 The megalithic regions in Europe and North Africa (after Camp 1961; Whitehouse 1981; Soulier 1998; Burl 2000; Kalb 2001; Malone 2001; Trump 2002; Sjögren 2003; Piccolo 2007; Scarre 2007; García Sanjuán 2009; Cicilloni 2010; Fritsch et al. 2010a Figure 1.2 Dolmens world-wide. Drawings from Montelius 1905 Orienten och Europa. 1. India, p. 11, Figure 4; 2. Krim, p. 14, Figure 8; 3. Sudan, p. 16, Figure 9; 4. Portugal, p. 23, Figure 13; 5. Palestine, p. 13, Figure 6 Figure 1.3 The modified diffusionism of Gordon Childe in Europe and his successors. Passage graves are seen as derivations of Cretan passage graves (after Renfrew 1973, 46) Figure 1.4 Estimates for the start of construction of accessible megaliths from Müller (1998), based on the then available 606 radiocarbon results out of megalithic and long barrow contexts. The time intervals are showing the approximate modified values f _GoBack Chapter 2 Methodical Approach: Radiocarbon Dates and Bayesian Chronological Modelling The radiocarbon dates Composition of data Classification of the contexts and data quality Alternative dating approaches The Bayesian approach Figure 2.1 Number of radiocarbon dates considered in this volume obtained from different material types (n=2410) Figure 2.2 Number of radiocarbon dates from charcoal samples identified after wood species (n=102) Figure 2.3 The charcoal samples: classification of the contexts (n=944) Figure 2.4 Classification of the sample contexts Figure 2.5 Simulation A by a process of back-calibration of calibrated dates for 25 radiocarbon determinations which actually date within 25 y from 4000‒3976 BC Figure 2.6 Sum calibration of simulation A. The bar marks the actual time span and shows that a sum calibration would extend the real time interval 4 times Figure 2.7 Simulation B by a process of back-calibration of calibrated dates for 30 radiocarbon determinations which actually date within 300 y from 4100‒3800 BC Figure 2.8 Sum calibration of simulation B. The bar marks the actual time span and shows that a sum calibration would extend the real time interval by more than 50% Figure 2.9 Sum calibration versus Bayesian statistical framework. The analysis of all available radiocarbon dates for the Bell Beaker contexts in Southern France (Lemercier et al. 2014, Figure 13) show the large discrepancies between the two different met Figure 2.10 The calibration curve Intcal09 (Reimer et al. 2009). Detailed the for this analysis important time intervals Chapter 3 Northwest France Pre-megalithic structures and pre-megalithic funeral rites in Northwest France Pre-megalithic structures in the Paris Basin/Northern France Pre-megalithic structures in Brittany and on the Channel islands Pre-megalithic structures in the Central West France Transitional structures and the emergence of megaliths in Northwest France The emergence of megaliths in the Paris Basin/Northern France The emergence of megaliths in Brittany and the Channel Islands The emergence of megaliths in Central West France Appearance and architectonical features of megaliths in Northwest France Megaliths in the Paris Basin/Northern France Megaliths in Brittany and on the Channel Islands Megaliths in Central West France Megalithic structures with radiocarbon sequences and radiocarbon dates Megaliths with radiocarbon results in the Paris Basin/Northern France Megaliths with radiocarbon results in Brittany and on the Channel Islands Radiocarbon Results for Human Bones from Megalithic Graves in Brittany Multi-Phased Megalithic Structures in Brittant Finistère Morbhian Channel Islands Megaliths with radiocarbon determinations in Central West France Dating the megaliths on the basis of the artifacts The material in the early megaliths The material in the passage graves The material in the later megalithic grave forms The burial rites of megalithic societies in Northwest France Burial rites in the Paris Basin/Northern France The burial rites in Brittany and on the Channel Islands Burial rites in Central West France Contemporaneous non-megalithic burials Contemporaneous non-megalithic burials in the Paris Basin/Northern France Dry Wall Structures Wooden Gallery Graves Pit Burials and Secondary Deposits or Ossuaries Burials in Rock Shelters Houses for the Dead Hypogea Contemporaneous non-megalithic burials in Brittany and on the Channel Islands Contemporaneous non-megalithic burials in Central West France Conclusion Figure 3.1 Planum necropolis Passy (Lemercier et al. 2010) Figure 3.2 Necropolis Passy. The monuments of sector A and B with burials and radiocarbon determinations Figure 3.3 Probability distributions of dates from the necropolis Passy (cf table 3.1). Model 1 is established under the assumption, that all monuments of sector A and sector B belong to one necropolis and the same society. Model agreement: Amodel=98, A Figure 3.5 Span A, sector La Sablonnière Figure 3.6 Span B, sector Le Richebourg Figure 3.7 Reconstruction of the Passy graves. Drawing by the author after G. Tosello, (Constantin et al. 1997) Figure 3.8 Planum necropolis Balloy, Le Réaudins with the available radiocarbon dates (planum after Mordant 1997, 450) Figure 3.9 Probability of dates from Balloy, Le Réaudins. Model agreement: Amodel=101.7, Aoverall=105.9 Figure 3.10 Necropolis Fleury-sur-Orne (Desloges 1994: 532) Figure 3.11 Rots (Desloges 1994: 518) Figure 3.12 Reconstruction of a double burial in Téviec, Museum Toulouse. Photo courtesy of Didier Descouens - CC-by-sa /Wikimedia Commons Figure 3.13 Planum of the double burial A in cist, Téviec (Midgley 2005, 59; Péquart et al. 1937) Figure 3.14 Goumoisière, cists 1, 2, 3, and 5 (after Soler 2007: 117) Figure 3.15 Probability of dates from all available radiocarbon results in the cist burial site Goumoisière. Model agreement: Amodel=85, Aoverall=82.7 Figure 3.16 The tumulus Carnacéen St. Michel in Carnac with probability of radiocarbon dates. Planum according to Le Rouzic 1932 and Boujot/Cassen 1992. Photo of green stone artifacts with the kind permission of Serge Cassen, University Nantes (Cassen 201 Figure 3.17 The tumulus Carnacéen Tumiac. Planum after Fouquet 1857, musée de la Société polymathique du Morbihan, Vannes (Herbault/Querré 2004: 501) Figure 3.18 Tumiac. Photo courtesy of Stéphane Batigne, CC-by-sa /Wikimedia Commons Figure 3.19 Jade axes and variscite collier, Tumiac. Photo courtesy of Serge Cassen (Cassen 2011: Figure 3) Figure 3.20 Round and long tumuli with non-accessible ancient dolmens. Le Castellic and Kervinio (after Soler 2007); St. Germain (after Cassen et al. 2000). Ceramic of St. Germain with the kind permission of Serge Cassen. The necropolis Manio (after Casse Figure 3.21 Planum Lannec er Gadouer (after Boujot/Cassen 1998, Cassen et al. 2000, Figure 3) Figure 3.22 Radiocarbon determinations from Lannec er Gadouer. Model agreement: Amodel=69, Aoverall=71.9 Figure 3.23 Planum Er Grah with radiocarbon results (after Cassen 2009, Figure 7) Figure 3.24 Radiocarbon determinations from Er Grah. Model agreement: Amodel=71.6, Aoverall=73.1 Figure 3.25 Planum Les Fouaillages, Guernsey (after Kinnes/Grant 1983: 30) Figure 3.26 Reconstruction La Pierre Tourneresse. Drawing after Cédric Lacherez,-CC-by-sa /Wikimedia Commons Figure 3.27 Probability of radiocarbon dates, La Pierre Tourneresse, Cairon, Calvados. Model agreement: Amodel=94.9, Aoverall=95 Figure 3.28 Colombiers-sur Seulles (Billard/Chancerel 1998, 253) and Hazleton in Southwest England (Malone 2005, 120) Figure 3.29 Probability distribution of dates from human bones in gallery graves in the Paris Basin. Model agreement: Amodel=94.4, Aoverall=93.2 Figure 3.30 Probability distribution of dates from human bone samples from megalithic graves in Breton. Model agreement: Amodel=97.1, Aoverall=97.4 Figure 3.31 The passage graves in Port Blanc, Quiberon Figure 3.32 Planum of the passage graves at Port Blanc showing their location directly on the cliffs (after Gouézin 2007). The southwestern grave is today partly eroded Figure 3.33 Barnenez from the southeast. Figure 3.34 Destroyed section of Barnenez from the northeast Figure 3.35 Planum Barnenez (after Joussaume 1985: 129) Figure 3.36 Probability of radiocarbon determinations from Barnenez Figure 3.37 Planum Le Souc´h (after Laporte 2010) Figure 3.38 Probability of radiocarbon results from Le Souc´h. Model agreement: Amodel=94.3, Aoverall=94.3 Figure 3.39 Ile Guénioc, tumuli I, II and III (Giot 2007: 42) Figure 3.40 Planum Table des Marchands with radiocarbon results (after Cassen 2009) Figure 3.41 Probability of all dates from the site Table des Marchands. Start alignment/TPQ-activities 5223−5047 cal BC, 68.2%; 5370−4970 cal BC, 95.4%; end alignment TPQ-activities 4208−4057 cal BC, 68.2%; 4257−3977 cal BC, 95.4%; start TDM 4112−3932 cal Figure 3.42 Table des Marchands from the southeast Figure 3.43 The Petit Mont in Arzon (after Le Roux 1999, 51) Figure 3.44 Probability of the dates from the Petit Mont in Arzon. Model agreement: Amodel=74.4, Aoverall=77.8. Figure 3.45 Petit Mont. Photo courtesy of Manvyi, - CC-by-sa /Wikimedia Commons Figure 3.46 Façade of Gavrinis Figure 3.47 Planum Dissignac after the excavations in 1976 (after www.http://bsecher.pagesperso-orange.fr/Dissignac.htm, Figure 14) Figure 3.48 Planum from the angle-formed grave Goërem (Briard 2000). Figure 3.49 Planum V-formed gallery grave Liscuis I (after Briard 2000, 41) Figure 3.50 Probability of the dates from the the necropolis Liscuis. Model agreement: Amodel=98.7, Aoverall=98.7 Figure 3.51 Planum Le Déhus (after Schulting 2010: 151) Figure 3.52 Probability distributions of dates from Le Déhus Figure 3.53 Probability distribution for the dates of the passage grave La Hogue Bie, Jersey (after Schulting 2010). Model agreement: Amodel=84.9, Aoverall=85.9 Figure 3.54 Planum Chirons/Bougon (after Mohen 1986) Figure 3.55 Tumulus F and passage grave FO,Chirons/Bougon. Photo courtesy of Joachim Jahnke, CC-by-sa /Wikimedia commons Figure 3.56 Probability of radiocarbon determinations from monuments A-F, Chirons/Bougon. Model agreement: Amodel=96.4, Aoverall=94.5 Figure 3.57 Chamber FO, Chirons/Bougon (after Chambon 2003, Figure 26) Figure 3.58 Planum necropolis Champ Châlon/Benon, monuments A, B and C (after Joussaume 2006) Figure 3.59 The probability of radiocarbon dates from the necropolis Champ Châlon. The earliest individual in the necropolis is buried in monument B1 at ~4190 cal BC (4311–4054 cal BC, 68.1%; 4329–4046 cal BC, 95.4%). Four of the individuals in the monume Figure 3.60 Planum Péré C (after Laporte et al. 2002) Figure 3.61 Péré C: The model calculates the construction of the monument and phase I with the accessible dolmen to ~4340 cal BC (4372–4278 cal BC, 68.2%, 4420–4262 cal BC, 95.4%) and the enlargement with the section to the east and the passage grave some Figure 3.62 Probability of all available radiocarbon results from human bones out of passage graves in the Central West (without Bougon).Model agreement: Amodel=98.8, Aoverall=98.7 Figure 3.63 Sketch of Chamber B with the reported two ‘seated’ skeletons from F.C. Lukis (Schulting 2010, Figure 3) with the kind permission of Coll. Ant. V © Guernsey, Museum / Galleries, State of Guernsey 2009). Figure 3.64 Vierville/Butte á Luzerne, chamber A. Photo courtesy of Guy Verron Figure 3.65 Probability of dates from Vierville/Butte á Luzerne. Model agreement: Amodel=81.9, Aoverall=84.4 Figure 3.66 La Hoguette (after Caillaud/Lagnel 1972; Chambon 2003: 64) Figure 3.67 Corridor in dry wall technique La Hogue Figure 3.68 Distribution of the probability of radiocarbon measurements from La Hoguette. Model agreement: Amodel=83.1, Aoverall=79.8 Figure 3.69 Necropolis Condé-sur Ifs. Planum Ernes and La Bruyere du Hamel (after Billard/Chancerel 1998) Figure 3.70 Main pre-megalithic sites and earliest megaliths mentioned in the text (chapters 3.1-3.2). Figure 3.71 Main sites mentioned in text (chapters 3.3-3.7) Figure 3.72 Table 3.1 Radiocarbon dates from the Paris Basin/Northern France Table 3.2 Radiocarbon dates from Brittany Table 3.3 Radiocarbon dates from the Channel Islands Table 3.4 Radiocarbon dates from Central West France Chapter 4 Catalonia Pre-megalithic structures and pre-megalithic funeral rites in Catalonia Transitional structures and the emergence of megaliths in Catalonia Appearance and architectonical features of megalithic structures in Catalonia Megalithic structures with radiocarbon sequences and radiocarbon dates Dating the megaliths on the basis of the artifacts Contemporaneous non-megalithic burials The megalithic burial rites Conclusion Figure 4.1 El Padró I. Photo courtesy of Miquel Molist Figure 4.2 Font de la Vena. Photo courtesy of Miquel Molist Figure 4.3 Font de la Vena, planum and side profiles chamber (Molist et al.1987, 64) Figure 4.4 Tomba del General, Cap de Creus from the north Figure 4.5 Coll de Madas I by Catallops. The simple dolmen is part of a small necropolis Figure 4.6 Estanys I, La Jonquera, dolmen with antechamber Figure 4.7 Dolmen de la Carena, Cap de Creus from the west Figure 4.8 Dolmen de les Ruїnes, Cap de Creus from the southwest Figure 4.9 Dolmen Taula del Lladres, Coastal Pyrenees, simple dolmen with cup marks on the cap stone Figure 4.10 Vines Mortes I, Cap de Creus. Passage grave with rectangular chamber Figure 4.11 Left: dolmen Mas Puig de Caneres, East Pyrenees with a sub-circular chamber, right:gallery Cova d´en Diana, Baix Empordá Figure 4.12 Catalonian megalithic graves. Left: dolmen de la Carena (after Tarrús i Galter 2002, Figure 223, right: Dolmen de les Ruїnes, Cap de Creus (after Tarrús i Galter 2002, Figure 222) Figure 4.13 Catalonian megalithic graves. Above left: dolmen de Estanys I (after Tarrús i Galter 2002, Figure 69), right: dolmen de Estanys II (Cura/Morera 1996, Figure2). Below left: dolmen de Arrenyats (Cura i Morera/Vilardell 1996, Figure 3) right: dol Figure 4.14 Recinto Mas Baleta, La Jonquera from the west Figure 4.15 Bayesian model with available radiocarbon dates from the Neolithic and the Copper Age, zone II and IV (according to www. telearchaeology. com with the megalith zones East Pyrenees and Central Catalan Depression,where the first megaliths in Cat Figure 4.16 The zoning of the available radiocarbon dates in Catalonia according to www.telearchaeology.es. The proposed zoning follows recent landscapes and natural borders. The main megalithic regions are red marked. Map source Google Earth, 20.09. 2011 Figure 4.17 The main pre-megalithic sites and early megaliths mentioned in the text (chapters 4.1, 4.2). Figure 4.18 The main sites mentioned in text (chapters 4.3- 4.7). Table 4.1 Radiocarbon dates from Catalonia Chapter 5 Southern France Pre-megalithic structures and pre-megalithic funeral rites in Southern France Transition to the megalithic structures and the emergence of megaliths Appearance and architectonical features of megaliths in Southern France Megalithic structures with radiocarbon sequences and radiocarbon dates Dating the megaliths on the basis of the artifacts Megalithic burial rites Contemporaneous non-megalithic burials Stone Cists Hypogea Natural Caves avd Rock Shelters Pit Burials Conclusion Figure 5.1 Camp del Ginèbre, Caramany. The different grave forms (after Vaquer 2007: 17) Figure 5.2 Planum Camp del Ginèbre (after Claustre 1998, 170) Figure 5.3 Necropolis Najac, Siran, Hérault. Planum chamber 3 (after Mahieu 1992: 146) Figure 5.4 Necropolis Najac, Siran, Hérault. Transversal arrowheads from chamber 2, diagnostic Chasséen ceramic chamber 3 (after Mahieu 1992: 146, 149) Figure 5.5 Planum and profile Boujas, Aigne (Hérault) (Vaquer 2007: 16) Figure 5.6 Chasséen grave St. Jean du Desert. Photo courtesy of Gérard Sauzade Figure 5.7 Probability of radiocarbon results from Château Blanc in Ventabren (Model agreement: Amodel=87, Aoverall=87.5 Figure 5.8 Château Blanc, Ventabren. Plan after Hasler et al. 1998 Figure 5.9 Simple dolmen at Coll del Pinyer and Cap the Creus, French Pyrenees Figure 5.10 Dolmen with a round stone basement for a tumulus Figure 5.11 Ante-chamber Dolmen Languedocien de Lamalou, St. Hippolyte du Fort Figure 5.12 Dolmen Cham du Florac in Lozere Figure 5.13 Dolmens in Quercy Figure 5.14 Provence, Dolmen by Grasse. Photo courtesy of Jonas Paulsson. Figure 5.15 Standing stone Cham du Florac in Lozere Figure 5.16 The stone circle Peyarine in the Cévennes with an average of approximately 140m is one of the largest stone circles in Europe Figure 5.17 Probability of the 18 radiocarbon results from the Dolmen de l´Ubac. Model agreement: Amodel=93.1, Aoverall=93 Figure 5.20 Planum hypogea Crottes, Roaix in Vaucluse, layer 2 with articulated skeletons (Chambon 2003: 51) Figure 5.21 Main sites mentioned in text with pre-megalithic sites and earliest megaliths (chapters 5.1, 5.2). Figure 5.22 Main sites mentioned in text (chapters 5.3-5.7). Chapter 6 Corsica Pre-megalithic structures and pre-megalithic funeral rites on Corsica Transitional structures and the emergence of megaliths on Corsica Appearance and architectonical features of megalithic structures on Corsica Contemporaneous non-megalithic burials Dating the megaliths on the basis of the artifacts Megalithic burial rites Megalithic structures with radiocarbon sequences and radiocarbon dates Conclusion Figure 6.1 Probability of radiocarbon determinations from the Monte Revincu. Model agreement Amodel=127.5, Aoverall=124.5 Figure 6.2 The Neolithic settlement with necropolis on the Monte Revincu, North Corsica (after Leandri et al. 2007, Figure 12) Figure 6.3 Dolmen Cellucia or Somnital on the Monte Revincu, North Corsica. Photo courtesy of Franck Leandri Figure 6.4 The Monte Revincu from Saint Florent Figure 6.5 Dolmen di Tola di U Turmento, southwest Corsica Figure 6.6 Dolmen de Fontanacchia, plain of Cauria Figure 6.7 Dolmen de Settiva, Petreto-Bicchisano Figure 6.8 The alignment de Renaghju, plain de Cauria Figure 6.9 The alignment of Stantari, plain de Cauria Figure 6.10. Main sites mentioned in text (map source: SRTM geodata.) Table 6.1 Radiocarbon dates from Corsica _GoBack Chapter 7 Sardinia Pre-megalithic structures and pre-megalithic funeral rites on Sardinia Transitional structures and the emergence of megaliths on Sardinia Appearance and architectonical features of megalithic structures on Sardinia Dating the megaliths on the basis of the artifacts Megalithic structures with radiocarbon sequences and radiocarbon dates Contemporaneous non-megalithic burials Megalithic burial rites Conclusion Figure 7.1 The Li Muri graves in Arzachena. Plan of the necropolis after Antona Ruju Ferrarese Ceruti 1992: 42 Figure 7.2 Dolmen de Ladas, Dolmen de Billela, Dolmen de Ciuledda, northern Sardinia Figure 7.3 Simple Sardinian dolmens : Dolmens Matta Larentu I-VII (after Cicilloni 2010, Figure 90) Figure 7.4 More elaborated dolmens and passage graves. 1) Dolmen de Ladas, 2) Dolmen de Sa Coveccada, 3) Dolmen de Motorolla (after Cicilloni 2010 Figure 4, Figure 55, Figure 97) Figure 7.5 Dolmen de Sa Coveccada, near Mores Figure 7.6 Dolmen de Pranu Muttedu, near Goni Figure 7.7 The megalithic pyramid Monte d´Accoddi, Sassari from the southwest, the planum after restauration (after Contu 2000, 42) and the probability of radiocarbon results. Model agreement: Amodel=109, Aoverall=108.5 Figure 7.9 Plan of the hypogea necropolis at Montessu. With the kind permission of Area archeologica di Montessu. Figure 7.10 The hypogea necropolis Montessu in Southwest Sardinia, grave VII and VIII. Figure 7.11 Main sites mentioned in text (map source: SRTM geodata, black with white circle: site mentioned in text: black: megalithic graves on Sardinia). Table 7.1 Radiocarbon dates from Sardinia _GoBack Chapter 8 The Maltese Archipelago Pre-megalithic structures and pre-megalithic funeral rites on the Maltese Archipelago Transitional structures and the emergence of megaliths on the Maltese archipelago Appearance, architectonical features and function of the megalithic structures on the Maltese archipelago Megalithic structures with sequences and with radiocarbon dates Dating the megaliths on the basis of the artifacts Conclusion Contemporaneous burial rites Figure 8.1 Megalithic temples, settlements and grave forms on the Maltese archipelago Figure 8.2 Situation in the landscape and orientation of the megaliths during the Ġgantija phase Figure 8.3 Situation in the landscape and orientation of the megaliths during the Tarxien phase Figure 8.4 Ħaġar Quim from the southwest Figure 8.5 Mnaidra with view to the islands of Fifla Figure 8.6 Mnaidra South Figure 8.7 Entrance Ġgantija Figure 8.8 Door construction Tarxien Figure 8.9 Classical late dolmen Wied Filep Figure 8.10 The Malta sequence. Bayesian model with the probability of dates from all available radiocarbon results of Maltese Neolithic and Bronze Age Tarxien cemetery contexts (Malone et al. 2009b: 342). Model agreement: Amodel=89.7, Aoverall=90,0 Figure 8.11 The Brochtorff circle sequence. Model agreement: Amodel=92.7, Aoverall=89.3 Figure 8.12 Main sites mentioned in text Table 8.1 Radiocarbon dates from Malta _GoBack Chapter 9 Southern Spain Pre-megalithic structures and pre-megalithic burial rites in Southern Spain Transitional structures and the emergence of megaliths in Southern Spain Appearance and architectonic features of megalithic structures in Southern Spain Megalithic structures with sequences and with radiocarbon dates Dating the megaliths on the basis of the artifacts The megalithic burial rites Contemporaneous non-megalithic burials Conclusion Figure 9.1 Almeria graves. Zurgeña : 1) Loma de las Eras I, 2) Palacés II, 3) Vélez Blanco. Tabernas: 4)Llano de la Rueda I (Leisner/Leisner 1943, Tafel 2) Figure 9.2 Planum Campo de Hockey with grave 11 as a transitional structure to the megaliths (after Vijande Vila 2009, Figure 7) Figure 9.3 The elaborated monumental graves of Antequera. Above: entrance area Dolmen de Menga with members of the European megalithic studies group, in the middle: interior Dolmen de Menga, below on the left: entrance area Dolmen de Viera, below on the r Figure 9.4 The elaborated megalith graves of Andalusia. Above: Dolmen de Viera (Leisner/Leisner 1943, Tafel 57), in the middle: Dolmen de Soto in Huelva (after García Sanjuán/Linares Catela 2009: 143, after Hugo Obermeier), below: Dolmen La Pastora in Se Figure 9.5 The Gorafe necropolises: Hoyas del Conquin. Above: dolmen 134, below view over the high plateau Hoyas del Conquin with grave 118 Figure 9.6 The Gorafe necropolises: graves La Sabina (Leisner/Leisner 1943, Tafel 35) Figure 9.7 The Gorafe necropolises: graves La Sabina (Leisner/Leisner 1943, Tafel 35) Figure 9.8 The fortified settlement of Los Millares. Above: the main gate, below muralla I, sector with megalithic architectonic elements Figure 9.9 The fortified settlement of Los Millares. Above grave LIV form the southeast, below Fortín I and view to the northeast Figure 9.10 Probability of radiocarbon determinations from the fortified settlement of Los Millares, Andalusia. Model agreement: Amodel=92.2, Aoverall=88.1 Figure 9.11 Necropolis Peñas de los Gitanos, Montefrío. Left: grave 23, right grave 18 Figure 9.12 Peñas de los Gitanos, Montefrío, main plateau from the northeast Figure 9.13 Probability of dates from las Peñas de los Gitanos/Los Castillejos (Montefrío, Granada). Model agreement: Amodel=75; Aoverall=75.2. Figure 9.14 Necropolis Peñas de los Gitanos, Montefrío. Graves group 25 (Leisner/Leisner 1943, Tafel 52) Figure 9.15 Main sites mentioned in the text. Table 9.1 Radiocarbon dates from Andalusia Chapter 10 West Iberian Peninsula Pre-megalithic structures and pre-megalithic funeral rites Transitional structures and the emergence of megaliths on the West Iberian Peninsula Appearance and architectonical features of megaliths on the West Iberian Peninsula Megalithic graves in the southern regions: Estremandura, Alentejo, and Algarve Megalithic graves in the northern regions: Beira, Northern Portugal, Galica Megalithic structures with radiocarbon sequences and with radiocarbon dates Radiocarbon results from human bones in megalithic contexts All available radiocarbon dates from megalithic contexts and the regional sequences The Southern Regions The Northern Regions The Colour Sequence Dating the megaliths on the basis of the artifacts Megalithic burial rites Contemporaneous non-megalithic burials Caves and Rock Shelters Hypogea/Rock-Cut Tombs Conclusion Figure 10.1 Necropolis Palmeira in the Mochique Mountains, Algarve. Graves 1-17 (Leisner/Leisner 1959, Taf. 46) (1) Figure 10.1 Necropolis Palmeira in the Mochique Mountains, Algarve. Graves 1-17 (Leisner/Leisner 1959, Taf. 46) (2) Figure 10.2 Alamo Grave 5, Valverde/Evora, Alentejo Figure 10.3 Planum Cotogrande 1 (after Fábregas Válcarce/Vilaseco Vázquez 2003, Figure 5) Figure 10.4 Passage grave Anta do Olival da Pega 2 . Photo courtesy João Carvalho-CC-by-sa Wikimedia Commons Figure10.5 The more elaborated passage graves in the Alentejo: Anta Grande do Zambujeiro, Valverde and Anta Grande da Comenda da Igreja, Montemor-o-Novo Figure 10.6 The Anta Grande da Comenda da Igreja, Montemor-o-Novo(Leisner/Leisner 1959, Tafel 25) Figure 10.7 Non-accessible dolmens in Galicia (Leisner/Leisner 1956, Tafel 22). 1. Agro dos Balados, 2. Mamoa von Espinareda, 3. -5. La Mourela, 6.-7. Mamoa 2 und 7, Monte de Morá Figure 10. 8 Passage graves with graded cover stones in Beira and Minho (Leisner/Leisner 1956, Tafel 19). 1.) Dolmen de Carapito, 2.) Anta da Barrosa, 3.) Chã do Mezio 4, 4.) Lapa do Repilau, 5.) Val de Cadella 2 Figure 10.9 Cromlech dos Almendres, Alentejo and stone circles in the southern Westiberian peninsula (planum after Calado 2006, Figure 4) Figure 10.10 Time interval and span for the results gained from charcoal samples compared to the results gained from human bones from megalithic grave contexts on the West Iberian Peninsula. The measurements for the charcoal samples start ~3800y earlier t Figure 10.11 Probability of radiocarbon dates from megalithic contexts in the Estremandura with associated diagnostic material. Model structure and phases (defined according to the approach of Boaventura 2009, 2010). Figure 10.12 Probability of dates from megalithic contexts from the Alentejo according to the diagnostic archaeological material. Defined phases and model structure (after Boaventura 2009). Model agreement: Amodel=113.8, Aoverall=113.5 Figure 10.13 Probability of all dates from megaliths in Beira with clear contexts.Model agreement: Amodel=104.1, Aoverall=104.3. The TPQ-values originate from contexts such as the ancient soil and layers under the tumuli or the debris of the tumuli. The p Figure 10.14a Dolmen de Areita. The grave from the front and geometric microlites (Museu Eduardo Tavares, S. João da Pesqueira). With the kind permission of Artur Oliveira, Cultural Heritage, Municipality of S. João da Pesqueira Figure 10.14b Dolmen de Areita. Beads of schist, variscite and fluorite (Museu Eduardo Tavares, S. João da Pesqueira) and planum dolmen de Areite. With the kind permission of Artur Oliveira, Cultural Heritage, Municipality of S. João da Pesqueira. Figure 10.15 Probability of dates from Areite 1/ S. João da Pesqueira in the Beira interior. Model agreement: Amodel=90.4, Aoverall=90.1 Figure 10.16 Dolmen de Dombate. Left, photo courtesy Lanbricae - CC-by-sa /Wikimedia Commons, right (after Fábregas Válcarce/Vilaseco Vázquez 2003, Figure 3) Figure 10.17 Probability of dates from the dolmen de Dombate. Model agreement: Amodel=98.8, Aoverall=99.6 Figure 10.18 The ‘black colour sequence’ from Galician megalithic graves. Modell Agreement: Amodel=97.8, Aoverall=97.7 Figure 10.19 Black and red paintings on the side stones C6 and C5 in the Dolmen de Antelas, Viseu (Shee Twohig 1981, Figure 38) Figure 10.20 Idol plaques, Lilios classical type I (2010, Fig: 4a) Figure 10.21 Planum Monte Canelas 1, the under layer (Parreira/Serpa 1995, 5) Figure 10.22 The main pre-megalithic sites and early megaliths mentioned in the text (chapters 4.1, 4.2). Figure 10.23 Main sites mentioned in text (chapters 4.3-4.7) Table 10.1 Radiocarbon dates from the West Iberian Peninsula Chapter 11 The other megalithic regions in Northern Europe and in the Mediterranean The Northern megalithic regions Britain and Ireland Belgium Northern Germany, Netherlands Scandinavia The other Mediterranean megalithic regions The Balearic Islands Italian mainland and Sicily Switzerland _GoBack Chapter 12 Synthesis: the emergence and spreading of megaliths and megalithic societies in Europe Standing stones as the first megalithic monuments? The very beginning: first monumental non-megalithic grave architecture in Europe The emergence of megalithic graves in Europe Convergence vs. transfer and possible transfer scenarios Green stone as an economical factor: trade and prospection as a driving force for the transfer of the early megaliths Rocks, forms, megalithic landscapes Accessibility and change Stone and symbol The social, cultural, and biological conditions of memory Stone and Ritual Conclusion Figure 12.1 Map showing dates estimated for the start of megaliths in the different European regions in 95% probability (68% probability in brackets). Bold and cursive are the estimations represented based on samples out of megalithic contexts, straight t Figure 12.2 Map showing dates estimated for the start of accessible megaliths as dolmens and passage graves in the different European regions in 95% probability (68% probability in brackets). Bold and cursive are the estimations represented based on sampl Figure 12.3 Variscite beads from the tumulus Er Grah. Foto with the kind permission of the museum in Carnac Figure 12.4 Variscite beads from the tumulus St. Michel with the kind permission of the Museum Carnac (Photo courtesy of Serge Cassen), and dendrogram obtained from a hierarchical classification of data from Neolithic beads and geological references of va Figure 12.5 Variscite sources and indications for sources in Europe with the distribution of variscite objects in the 5th millennium and the first half of the 4th millennium cal BC (after Herbaut/Querré 2004) correlated to the early megaliths of the 5th m Figure 12.6 Variscite beads from the tumulus Mane er Hroëck, Carnac. Photo courtesy of Serge Cassen Figure 12.7 Spreading of variscite objects in contexts from the second half of the 4th and the 3rd millennium cal BC Figure 12.8 Distribution of jadeite axes from the 5th and the beginning of the 4th millennium cal BC with the jadeite sources compared to the cooper axes and gold artifacts in Eastern Europe (after Pétrequin et al. 2012: 193) and correlated to the early m Figure 12.10 The natural ritual landscape. Rock formations at the alignment Renaghju on Corsica and the necropolis Li Muri on Sardinia Appendix 1 Oversight Graphic Appendix 2 Glossary Funeral architecture – inner structures Funeral architecture – outer structures Non-megalithic contemporaneous burials Other megalithic structures Figure Appendix 2.1 Megalithic terminology of the various regions Appendix 3 Bookmark 393