The Environment Through the Lens of International Courts and Tribunals

Description

This book brings together leading and emerging scholars and practitioners to present an overview of how regional, international and transnational courts and tribunals are engaging with the environment.  With the natural world under unprecedented pressure, the book highlights the challenges and opportunities presented by international dispute resolution for the protection of the environment and the further development of international environmental law. Presented in three parts, it addresses how individual courts and tribunals engage with environmental matters (Part I); how courts and tribunals are resolving key issues common to environmental litigation (Part II); and future opportunities and developments in the field (Part III).  The book is an essential one-stop-shop for students, practitioners and academics alike interested in international litigation and the protection of our global environment. Edgardo Sobenes is an international lawyer and consultant in international law (ESILA), Sarah Mead is a lawyer specialising in international environmental and human rights law, and Benjamin Samson is a researcher at the Université Paris Nanterre and consultant in international law. Foreword Preface Contents About the Editors 1 Emergence of International Environmental Law: A Brief History from the Stockholm Conference to Agenda 2030 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Evolution of International Environmental Law 1.2.1 Pre-sustainable Development Era 1.2.2 Post-sustainable Development Era 1.2.3 Globalization, Anthropocene and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 1.3 Selected Principles of International Environmental Law 1.3.1 Obligation not to Cause Environmental Harm and the Principle of Prevention 1.3.2 Common but Differentiated Responsibility Principle 1.3.3 Inter- and Intra-generational Equity Principle 1.3.4 Precautionary Principle 1.3.5 Environmental Impact Assessment and Public Participation 1.4 Unique Features of IEL 1.4.1 Use of Soft Law Instruments 1.4.2 Framework/Protocol Approach 1.4.3 Linkages 1.4.4 North–South Divide 1.5 Regulation of the Global Commons 1.6 Regulation of Activities of Non-state Actors 1.7 Conclusion: Achievements, Challenges and Future Trajectory References Part I A Fragmented Jurisdictional Landscape 2 The International Court of Justice and the Protection of the Environment 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Principles Governing ICJ Action 2.2.1 The ICJ’s Contentious Function 2.2.2 The ICJ’s Advisory Function 2.3 An Overview of the Leading Cases 2.3.1 Environmental Cases Settled Out of Court 2.3.2 Environmental Cases Decided by the Court 2.4 Scientific Evidence in Environmental Cases before the International Court of Justice 2.4.1 Assembling the Necessary Evidence to Decide Environmental Cases 2.4.2 Establishment of the Facts in Environmental Cases 2.5 The Role of the Court in Preventing Irreparable Damage to the Environment 2.6 The ICJ’s Contribution to the Clarification of the Rules of International Law Relating to the Protection of the Environment 2.6.1 Recognition of an Obligation in Relation to Environmental Protection 2.6.2 The Relevance of Environmental Protection in Various Fields of International Law 2.6.3 Clarification of the Rules of International Environmental Law Relating to Transboundary Harm 2.6.4 Clarification of the Principles Applicable to Compensation for Environmental Damage 2.7 Conclusion References 3 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea 3.1 Introduction 3.2 The Relevant Procedural Rules of ITLOS 3.2.1 Jurisdiction in Contentious Proceedings 3.2.2 Provisional Measures and Advisory Proceedings 3.2.3 Applicable Law 3.3 ITLOS Jurisprudence Concerning Marine Environmental Protection 3.3.1 The Precautionary Principle 3.3.2 Duty to Cooperate 3.3.3 Duty to Conduct EIA 3.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of ITLOS in Dealing with Environmental Protection 3.4.1 Strengths 3.4.2 Weaknesses 3.5 Conclusion References 4 The Protection of the Environment Through Inter-State Arbitration 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Jurisdictional Questions and Incidental Proceedings 4.3 Codification and Application of Procedural Instruments 4.4 Substantive Contributions to Environmental Protection 4.5 Conclusion References 5 The World Trade Organization Dispute Settlement Mechanism 5.1 Introduction 5.2 An Overview of the WTO and Its Dispute Settlement System 5.2.1 Operation of the Dispute Settlement System 5.3 Significant Environmental Disputes Within the WTO Dispute Settlement System 5.3.1 Environmental Provisions in the WTO Covered Agreements 5.4 Assessment of the Strengths and Weaknesses of the WTO Dispute Settlement System as a Forum for Resolving Disputes Involving Environmental Matters 5.5 Conclusions References 6 Crimes Against the Environment: What Role for the International Criminal Court? 6.1 The Need for International Criminal Justice for the Protection of the Environment 6.2 Historical Background 6.3 The Core Crimes Under the Rome Statute 6.4 Jurisdiction of the ICC—A Brief Overview 6.5 Applicability of the Rome Statute to Environmental Crimes 6.6 Intentional Destruction of the Environment as Genocide? 6.7 Intentional Destruction of the Environment as a Crime Against Humanity? 6.8 Intentional Destruction of the Environment as a War Crime? 6.8.1 Article 8(2)(b)(iv) 6.8.2 Other War Crimes 6.9 Conclusion References 7 The European Court of Human Rights and the Environment 7.1 Introduction: The Environment Before the European Court of Human Rights 7.2 The ECHR: An Anthropocentric Forum of Environmental Protection? 7.2.1 Introduction 7.2.2 Ratione Personae Scope of Application of the ECHR 7.2.3 Ratione Materiae Scope of Application of the ECHR 7.2.4 Ratione Loci Scope of Application or State Jurisdiction 7.2.5 Ratione Temporis Scope of Application of the ECHR 7.3 Standing 7.3.1 Individuals or their Associations 7.3.2 Victim 7.4 Substantive Protection in Environmental Proceedings: The Case of Positive Environmental Obligations 7.4.1 Introduction 7.4.2 Bandwidth of Convention Rights Providing for Positive Obligations to Protect the Environment According to the ECtHR’s Jurisprudence 7.4.3 Specific Kinds of Positive Obligations Owed to the Protection of the Environment 7.4.4 Personal Scope of Application of Positive Environmental Rights and Obligations/Standard of Proof 7.5 Justification for Interferences or the Margin of Appreciation in Cases Concerning Positive Environmental Obligations 7.6 Remedies 7.7 Final Conclusions References 8 European Union Court System and the Protection of the Environment 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Background 8.2.1 The General Scheme of the Legal Remedies Before the Court of Justice 8.2.2 The Ratification of the Aarhus Convention by the EU 8.3 Limited Direct Actions for Individuals in Environmental Matters 8.3.1 Infringement Proceedings in Environmental Matters: Effective But Not Available to Individuals 8.3.2 Obstacles to Direct Actions Against EU Institutions in Environmental Disputes 8.4 The Importance of Preliminary Reference in Environmental Litigation 8.4.1 The Review by Way of Exception of the Legality of EU Institutions’ Acts 8.4.2 Guarantees Concerning Access to National Courts 8.5 The Problem of the Compliance with the Aarhus Convention 8.6 Conclusions References 9 Inter-American Court of Human Rights 9.1 Introduction 9.2 The Inter-American System: Contentious Jurisdiction 9.2.1 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 9.2.2 The Inter-American Court of Human Rights 9.3 The Inter-American System Advisory Jurisdiction: The Advisory Opinion of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights on the Environment and Human Rights 9.3.1 The Meaning of Jurisdiction under the American Convention and Potential Diagonal Climate Change Claims 9.3.2 The Right to Life as a Right to a Healthy Environment 9.3.3 The Positive Obligations Under the Right to Life and the Notion of the Right to Life in Dignity 9.3.4 Procedural Obligations in Environment-related Cases: Due Diligence, the Duty to Prevent Transboundary Harm and Other Procedural Obligations 9.4 Contentious Cases After the Advisory Opinion on Environment and Human Rights: The First Contentious Case on the Right to a Healthy Environment, the Lhaka Honhat Case 9.5 Conclusion References 10 The Protection of the Environment Before African Regional Courts and Tribunals 10.1 Introduction 10.2 ‘Wisdom of Elders’: The Birth of International Environmental Law in the African Continent 10.3 ‘We Are Sent Here by History’: Regionalizing International Environmental Law in Africa 10.3.1 Mapping African Regional Courts and Tribunals in the Context of RECs 10.3.2 A Panorama of Environmental Provisions in the Constitutive Instruments of RECs 10.4 ‘Lest We Forget What We Came Here to Do’: Environmental Activism in the Jurisprudence of African Regional Courts and Tribunals 10.4.1 Integrating Human Rights and the Environment: The Practice of the African Commission and the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights 10.4.2 Reinforcing Due Diligence to Protect the Environment: The Practice of the ECOWAS Court of Justice 10.4.3 Rethinking Remedies in Environmental Disputes: The Practice of the EAC Court of Justice 10.5 Conclusion References 11 Environmental Protection in International Investment Arbitration: From Defences to Counterclaims 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Environmental Protection as Host State Defence 11.3 Environmental Protection as Host State Counterclaim 11.4 Environmental Protection in Investor Claims 11.5 Conclusion: Multidimensional Environmental Protection in Investor-State Arbitration References 12 Commercial Arbitration 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Is Commercial Arbitration a Suitable Forum to Resolve Environmental Disputes? 12.2.1 Neutrality 12.2.2 Ease of Enforceability 12.2.3 Procedural Flexibility 12.3 Is There a Need for Greater Accessibility When Commercial Arbitration Is Used to Resolve Environmental Disputes? 12.3.1 The Tension Between Transparency and Confidentiality 12.3.2 The Tension Between Transparency and Privacy 12.3.3 The Tension Between the Lack of a Doctrine of Precedent and the Protection of the Environment 12.4 Conclusion References Part II Key Issues in International Environmental Proceedings 13 Jurisdiction and Applicable Law (Jurisdiction Ratione Materiae) 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Distinguishing Jurisdiction from Applicable Law 13.3 Jurisdiction 13.3.1 Compromissory Clauses Found in Environmental Treaties 13.3.2 Aspects of the Jurisdiction of Certain Courts and Tribunals 13.3.3 Concluding Remarks on Jurisdiction 13.4 Applicable Law 13.4.1 Applicable Law in the Context of Certain Courts and Tribunals 13.4.2 Concluding Remarks on Applicable Law 13.5 Forum Shopping 13.6 Conclusion References 14 Access to and Participation in Proceedings Before International Courts and Tribunals 14.1 Introduction 14.2 The Legal Framework Governing Access to and Participation in the Proceedings 14.2.1 Inter-State Dispute Settlement Mechanisms 14.2.2 Other Dispute Settlement Mechanisms 14.3 The Reasons for the Different Approaches to Access and Participation in the Proceedings 14.4 Concluding Remarks References 15 Provisional Measures 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Purposes and Nature of Provisional Measures 15.3 Authority to Order Provisional Measures 15.3.1 Express Authority to Order Provisional Measures for Protection of the Environment 15.3.2 Authority to Order Provisional Measures Proprio Motu 15.3.3 Express Authority to Order Provisional Measures Pending Constitution or Convening of Tribunal 15.4 Criteria and Considerations 15.4.1 Jurisdiction 15.4.2 Possibility of Success on the Merits 15.4.3 Link Requirement 15.4.4 Qualifying Risk 15.4.5 Urgency 15.4.6 Party Behaviour 15.4.7 Proportionality 15.5 Types of Measures Ordered 15.5.1 Orders Assigning a Unilateral Obligation 15.5.2 Orders Demanding Collaboration Between the Parties 15.5.3 Orders to Involve Third Parties 15.5.4 Complementary Measures 15.5.5 Modification or Revocation of Provisional Measures Previously Ordered 15.6 Legal and Practical Effect of Provisional Measures 15.7 Concluding Remarks References 16 Proving Environmental Harm Before International Courts and Tribunals 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Burden of Proof 16.2.1 Existence of Environmental Harm 16.2.2 Causation 16.2.3 Valuation 16.3 Standard of Proof 16.4 Methods of Proof 16.4.1 Documentary Evidence 16.4.2 Expert Evidence 16.4.3 Testimonial Evidence 16.5 Conclusion References 17 State Responsibility and Liability 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Distinguishing State Responsibility and Liability for Environmental Damage 17.2.1 State Responsibility 17.2.2 State Liability 17.3 State Responsibility and International Environmental Law 17.3.1 Community Interests in International Environmental Law 17.3.2 Due Diligence and the Principle of Prevention 17.4 State Responsibility and Reparations for Environmental Harm 17.5 Conclusions on State Responsibility and Environmental Harm References 18 The Principles of International Environmental Law Through the Lens of International Courts and Tribunals 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Principle of Sovereignty and Responsibility 18.3 Principle of Good Neighborliness and International Cooperation 18.4 Principle of Preventive Action 18.5 Precautionary Principle 18.6 Principle of Sustainable Development 18.7 The Duty to Compensate for Harm (Polluter Pays Principle) 18.8 Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibility References Part III Future Opportunities and Developments 19 Reflections on International Environmental Adjudication: International Adjudication Versus Compliance Mechanisms in Multilateral Environmental Agreements 19.1 Introduction: The Intrinsic Complexity of ‘Environmental Disputes’ 19.2 The Shift towards Managerialism: Compliance Mechanisms in MEA 19.2.1 The Emergence of Endogenous Compliance Mechanisms in MEA 19.2.2 Institutional and Procedural Features of Compliance Mechanisms in MEA 19.2.3 Compliance Mechanisms as Compliance Promoters and Dispute Avoiders: An Appraisal 19.3 Developments in the International Adjudication of Claims Based on Erga Omnes Partes Obligations 19.3.1 Standing for Claims Based on Multilateral Treaties 19.3.2 Third-Party Intervention on the Basis of Article 63 ICJ Statute 19.4 Concluding Reflections References 20 Climate Change Litigation: National Courts as Agents of International Law Development 20.1 Introduction 20.2 National Courts and International Law 20.2.1 How National Courts Engage with International Law 20.2.2 How National Courts Impact on International Law 20.3 International Law and Climate Change Litigation 20.3.1 Climate Change Litigation 20.3.2 Role of National Courts in Interpreting, and Enforcing, the International Climate Change Treaty Regime 20.4 National Courts and Climate Change Litigation: Engagement and Development 20.4.1 The Urgenda Decisions (2015–2019) (The Netherlands) 20.4.2 The Thomson Decision (2017) (New Zealand) 20.4.3 Reflections on the Urgenda and Thomson Decisions 20.5 Conclusion References 21 A Growing Role for the UN Security Council? 21.1 Introduction 21.2 The Legal Framework 21.2.1 The Mandate and Authority of the Security Council 21.2.2 The Security Council as a Dispute Resolution Body 21.3 The Security Council on Environmental Issues 21.3.1 Climate Change and the Security Council: A Cautious Approach 21.3.2 Preventive Diplomacy and Trans-boundary Waters 21.3.3 Protection of the Environment in Armed Conflict 21.3.4 Natural Resources and the Environment 21.4 Should the Security Council Address Environmental Issues? 21.4.1 The Climate-Security Connection 21.4.2 The Peace, Security and Development Nexus 21.4.3 Encroachment on Other UN Organs and Bodies? 21.5 Possible Future Role for the Security Council in the Protection of the Environment and Settling Environmental Disputes 21.5.1 The Environment and Conflict Prevention 21.5.2 Addressing Environmental Disasters or Events with Environmental Aspects that Endanger International Peace and Security 21.5.3 Chapter VII Enforcement Measures to Settle Environmental Disputes 21.6 Conclusion References 22 Application of World Law by International Courts and Tribunals to Protect the Environment 22.1 Introduction 22.2 World Law 22.2.1 World Law in the United Kingdom 22.2.2 World Law in the United States of America 22.2.3 Wereldrecht in the Netherlands 22.3 Application of World Law by International Courts and Tribunals 22.3.1 Sekai-hō in Japan 22.3.2 World Judge as Guardian of World Law 22.4 World Law, International Courts, and Environmental Protection 22.5 Some Reflections on the Potential of World Law Used by International Courts and Tribunals to Protect the Environment References 23 General Conclusions References Index