Aquaphotomics for Bio-diagnostics in Dairy: Applications of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy

Description

This book is the result of more than 20 years of experience in working with near-infrared spectroscopy for raw milk analysis. The totality of this work presents extensive possibilities for milk spectral measurements that can be carried out in dairy. Moving beyond the standard milk components such as fat, protein, or lactose, this book presents near-infrared spectroscopy as a method that can also be used in disease diagnostics. The measurements and experimental results presented here are all based on the utilization of usually neglected near-infrared regions―regions with strong absorbance of water. The author has found the water – light interaction discussed to be an immensely rich source of information, not only on milk composition but also on the physiological status of the animals involved. A special section of the book is dedicated to exploration of potential interfering factors that may influence the analysis and contribute to the robustness of the models. The research described in this book served as a basis for the development of the novel discipline aquaphotomics and is of interest to anyone working in this field. Preface About This Book Part I Introduction: Why Aquaphotomics for Bio-diagnostics? Part II NIRS for Determining the Composition of Milk from an Individual Cow Part III Somatic Cell Count Determination in Milk from an Individual Cow Part IV Influence of Perturbation on Measurements of Milk Composition Part V Physiological Studies of Dairy Cows Part VI Functional Studies of Dairy Cows Part VII Conclusion and Future Perspectives Contents About the Authors Abbreviations Part I Introduction: Why Aquaphotomics for Bio-diagnostics? 1 Milk Quality Management: State of the Art and Contemporary Requirements References 2 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy for Milk Quality Analysis: The State of the Art References 3 Aquaphotomics for Bio-diagnostics: Advancing Beyond the State of the Art References Part II NIRS for Determining the Composition of Milk from an Individual Cow 4 Milk Fat Measurement 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Material and Methods 4.2.1 Samples 4.2.2 Reference Analysis 4.2.3 NIR Spectra Acquisition 4.2.4 Data Analysis 4.3 Results and Discussion 4.4 Conclusions References 5 Milk Protein Measurement 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Material and Methods 5.2.1 Samples 5.2.2 Reference Analysis 5.2.3 NIR Spectra Acquisition 5.2.4 Data Analysis 5.2.5 Results and Discussion 5.3 Conclusions References 6 Milk Lactose Measurement 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Experimental 6.2.1 Samples 6.2.2 Reference Analysis 6.2.3 NIR Spectra Acquisition 6.2.4 Data Analysis 6.3 Results and Discussion 6.4 Conclusions References 7 Milk Urea Nitrogen Measurement 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Material and Methods 7.2.1 Instrumentation 7.2.2 Reference Analysis 7.2.3 Procedures 7.2.4 Data Analysis 7.3 Results and Discussion 7.4 Conclusions References 8 Milk Fatty Acids Measurement 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Material and Methods 8.2.1 Milk Samples 8.2.2 Instrumentation and Procedures 8.2.3 Reference Analysis 8.2.4 Data Analysis 8.3 Results and Discussion 8.3.1 Reference FA Analysis by Gas Chromatography 8.3.2 Initial Exploration of NIR Spectra and Preliminary Regression Analysis 8.3.3 Development of NIR Equations to Predict Individual FA Using the 1600–1800 nm Region 8.4 Conclusion References Part III Somatic Cell Count Determination in Milk from an Individual Cow 9 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy: A New Diagnostic Tool for Determination of Somatic Cell Count 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Material and Methods 9.2.1 Samples 9.2.2 Reference Analysis 9.2.3 NIR Spectra Acquisition 9.2.4 Data Analysis 9.3 Results and Discussion 9.4 Conclusions References 10 Non-destructive Somatic Cell Count Measurement Using Near-Infrared Spectra of Milk in the 400–1,100 nm Short Wavelength Region 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Material and Methods 10.2.1 Samples 10.2.2 NIR Spectra Acquisition 10.2.3 Reference Analysis 10.2.4 Data Analysis 10.3 Results and Discussion 10.4 Conclusions References 11 Measurement of Somatic Cell Count in the 700–1,100 nm Short Wavelength Region Using PLS Regression and Referenced Data 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Material and Methods 11.2.1 Instrumentation 11.2.2 Reference analysis 11.2.3 Procedures 11.2.4 Data Analysis 11.3 Results and Discussion 11.4 Conclusion References 12 Measurement of Somatic Cell Count in the 700–1,100 nm Short Wavelength Region: Comparison of At-Line and On-Line Measurement Modes 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Material and Methods 12.2.1 Milk Samples and NIR Spectra 12.2.2 Reference analysis 12.2.3 Data Analysis 12.3 Results and Discussion 12.4 Conclusions References 13 Influence of Sample Thickness and Individual Characteristics of Each Cow on Milk Composition Measurement in the Spectral Region from 700 to 1,100 nm 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Material and Methods 13.2.1 Samples 13.2.2 NIR Spectra Acquisition 13.2.3 Data Analysis 13.3 Results 13.4 Discussion References Part IV Influence of Perturbation on Measurements of Milk Composition 14 Influence of Individual Characteristics of Each Cow on Milk Composition Measurement in the Spectral Region from 1,100 to 2,400 nm 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Material and Methods 14.2.1 Samples 14.2.2 NIR Spectra Acquisition 14.2.3 Data Analysis 14.3 Results and Discussion 14.3.1 Milk Composition Analysis 14.3.2 Data Analysis 14.4 Conclusions References 16 Mastitis Influence on Milk Composition Measurement in the Spectral Region from 1,100 to 2,400 nm 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Material and Methods 16.2.1 Samples 16.2.2 Reference Analysis 16.2.3 NIR Spectra Acquisition 16.2.4 Data Analysis 16.3 Results and Discussion 16.4 Conclusions References 17 Interrelation Between the Composition and Near-Infrared Spectra of Milk, Blood Plasma and Rumen Juice of Lactating Cows 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Experimental 17.2.1 Samples 17.2.2 Reference Analysis 17.2.3 Instrumentation 17.2.4 Data Analysis 17.3 Results and Discussion 17.3.1 Milk Composition and Correlation with the Spectra of Rumen Juice and Blood Plasma 17.3.2 Rumen Juice Composition and Correlation with the Spectra of Milk 17.3.3 Blood Plasma Composition and Correlation with Milk Spectra 17.4 Conclusions References 18 Near-Infrared Spectra of Urine for Mastitis Diagnostics 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Material and Methods 18.2.1 Urine and Milk Samples 18.2.2 Urine Spectra 18.2.3 Data Analysis 18.3 Results and Discussion 18.4 Conclusions References Part V Physiological Studies of Dairy Cows 19 Mastitis Diagnostics Based on the Near-Infrared Spectra of Cow’s Milk, Blood and Urine 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Material and Methods 19.2.1 Samples 19.2.2 Spectral Acquisition 19.2.3 Data Analysis 19.3 Results and Discussion 19.4 Conclusions References 20 Near-Infrared Spectra of Udder Quarter Foremilk for Measurement of Both Somatic Cell Count and Absolute Electrical Conductivity and for Diagnosis of Mastitis 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Material and Methods 20.2.1 Milk Samples and Measurement of SCC and of Absolute Electrical Conductivity 20.2.2 NIR Spectra Acquisition 20.2.3 Data Analysis 20.3 Results 20.3.1 Quantitative Determination of SCC and AEC by NIRS 20.3.2 Qualitative Analysis of Milk Samples—Classification-Based Disease Diagnosis 20.4 Discussion 20.5 Conclusions References 21 Real-Time Near-Infrared Spectroscopy of Udder Tissue for Mastitis Diagnosis 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Material and Methods 21.2.1 Samples 21.2.2 NIR Spectra Acquisition 21.2.3 Milk Constituents Reference Analysis 21.2.4 Data Analysis 21.3 Results and Discussion 21.3.1 Initial Spectral Exploration and Outlier Detection 21.3.2 Exploration of Differences Between Udder Quarters 21.3.3 Mastitis Diagnosis Based on the NIR Spectra of Udder Quarter Tissues 21.4 Conclusions References 22 Estrus Detection in Dairy Cows Using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Aquaphotomics 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Material and Methods 22.2.1 Experiment 1: Measurements of Progesterone in Blood and in Milk 22.2.2 Experiment 2: The Water Spectral Pattern of Milk as a Biomarker of Estrus 22.3 Results and Discussion 22.3.1 Progesterone Measurements 22.3.2 Water Spectral Pattern of Milk as a Biomarker of Estrus 22.4 Conclusions References 23 Two-Dimensional Correlation Analysis of the Near-Infrared Spectra of Milk and Milk Constituents: Temporal Study of Postpartum Adaptation in Dairy Cows 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Material and Methods 23.2.1 Samples 23.2.2 NIR Spectra Acquisition 23.2.3 Data Preprocessing and Analysis 23.3 Results and Discussion 23.3.1 NIR Spectra of Milk 23.3.2 Generalized 2D-Correlation Analysis: Near-Infrared Spectra of Milk 23.3.3 Generalized 2D-Correlation Analysis: Milk Constituents 23.4 Conclusions References Part VI Functional Studies of Dairy Cows 24 Two-Dimensional Near-Infrared Correlation Spectroscopy of an Individual Cow’s Milk for Functional Study of Somatic Cell Count Changes in Milk 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Material and Methods 24.3 Analysis 24.3.1 Data Sectioning and Preprocessing 24.3.2 Correlation Analysis 24.4 Results and Discussion 24.5 Conclusions References 25 Wavelet Transform of Near-Infrared Individual Cow’s Milk for Single-Spectrum Mastitis Diagnosis 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Material and Methods 25.2.1 Samples 25.2.2 Reference Analysis 25.2.3 NIR Spectra Acquisition 25.2.4 Data Analysis 25.3 Results and Discussion 25.4 Conclusions References 26 Artificial Neural Network Applied to Near-Infrared Spectra of Raw Milk for Dairy Cow Feeding Management 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Experimental 26.2.1 Feeding Experiments and Milk Samples 26.2.2 NIR Spectra Acquisition 26.2.3 Reference Analysis 26.2.4 Neural Network 26.3 Results and Discussion 26.4 Conclusions References 27 Artificial Intelligence in Dairy Farming: The Near-Infrared Approach 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Material and Methods 27.2.1 Samples 27.2.2 NIR Spectra Acquisition 27.2.3 Reference Analysis 27.2.4 Data Analysis 27.3 Results and Discussion 27.4 Conclusions References Part VII Conclusion and Future Perspectives 28 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References