Fundamentals of anatomy & physiology

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Cover Title Preface Contents UNIT 1 Levels of Organization 1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology An Introduction to Studying the Human Body 1-1 Anatomy and physiology directly affect your life 1-2 Anatomy is structure, and physiology is function 1-3 Anatomy and physiology are closely integrated Anatomy Physiology 1-4 Levels of organization progress from molecules to a complete organism 1-5 Homeostasis is the state of internal balance 1-6 Negative feedback opposes variations from normal, whereas positive feedback exaggerates them The Role of Negative Feedback in Homeostasis The Role of Positive Feedback in Homeostasis Systems Integration, Equilibrium, and Homeostasis 1-7 Anatomical terms describe body regions, anatomical positions and directions, and body sections Superficial Anatomy Sectional Anatomy 1-8 Body cavities of the trunk protect internal organs and allow them to change shape The Thoracic Cavity The Abdominopelvic Cavity Chapter Review Spotlight Levels of Organization Diagnostic Imaging Techniques Clinical Case Using A&P to Save a Life Clinical Note Autopsies and Cadaver Dissection Auscultation 2 The Chemical Level of Organization An Introduction to the Chemical Level of Organization 2-1 Atoms are the basic particles of matter Atomic Structure Elements and Isotopes Atomic Weights Electrons and Energy Levels 2-2 Chemical bonds are forces formed by atom interactions Ionic Bonds Covalent Bonds Hydrogen Bonds States of Matter 2-3 Decomposition, synthesis, and exchange reactions are important chemical reactions in physiology Basic Energy Concepts Types of Chemical Reactions 2-4 Enzymes catalyze specific biochemical reactions by lowering the energy needed to start them 2-5 Inorganic compounds lack carbon, and organic compounds contain carbon 2-6 Physiological systems depend on water The Properties of Aqueous Solutions Colloids and Suspensions 2-7 Body fluid pH is vital for homeostasis 2-8 Acids, bases, and salts are inorganic compounds with important physiological roles Salts Buffers and pH Control 2-9 Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio Monosaccharides Disaccharides and Polysaccharides 2-10 Lipids often contain a carbon-to-hydrogen ratio of 1:2 Fatty Acids Eicosanoids Glycerides Steroids Phospholipids and Glycolipids 2-11 Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and are formed from amino acids Protein Structure Protein Shape Enzyme Function Glycoproteins and Proteoglycans 2-12 DNA and RNA are nucleic acids Structure of Nucleic Acids RNA and DNA 2-13 ATP is a high-energy compound used by cells 2-14 Chemicals and their interactions form functional units called cells Chapter Review Spotlight Chemical Notation Clinical Case What Is Wrong with My Baby? Clinical Note Radiation Sickness Fatty Acids and Health 3 The Cellular Level of rganization An Introduction to Cells 3-1 The plasma membrane separates the cell from its surrounding environment and performs various functions Membrane Lipids Membrane Proteins Membrane Carbohydrates 3-2 Organelles within the cytoplas perform particular functions The Cytosol The Organelles 3-3 The nucleus contains DNA and enzymes essential for controlling cellular activities Contents of the Nucleus Information Storage in the Nucleus 3-4 DNA controls protein synthesis, cell structure, and cell function The Role of Gene Activation in Protein Synthesis The Transcription of mRNA Translation and Protein Synthesis How the Nucleus Controls Cell Structure and Function 3-5 Diffusion is a passive transport mechanism that assists membrane passage Diffusion Diffusion across Plasma Membranes 3-6 Carrier-mediated and vesicular transport assist membrane passage Carrier-Mediated Transport Vesicular Transport 3-7 The membrane potential results from the unequal distribution of positive and negative charges across the plasma membrane 3-8 Stages of a cell’s life cycle include interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis DNA Replication Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis The Mitotic Rate and Energy Use 3-9 Several growth factors affect the cell life cycle 3-10 Tumors and cancers are characterized by abnormal cell growth and division 3-11 Differentiation is cellular specialization as a result of gene activation or repression Chapter Review Spotlight Anatomy of a Model Cell Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging Overview of Membrane Transport DNA Replication Stages of a Cell’s Life Cycle Clinical Case When Your Heart Is in the Wrong Place Clinical Notes Inheritable Mitochondrial Disorders DNA Fingerprinting Mutations Drugs and the Plasma Membrane Telomerase, Aging, and Cancer Parkinson’s disease 4 The Tissue Level of Organization An Introduction to the Tissue Level of Organization 4-1 The four tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and neural 4-2 Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines cavities and tubular structures, and serves essential functions Functions of Epithelial Tissue Specializations of Epithelial Cells Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia 4-3 Cell shape and number of layers determine the classification of epithelia Classification of Epithelia Glandular Epithelia 4-4 Connective tissue provides a protective structural framework for other tissue types Classification of Connective Tissues Connective Tissue Proper 4-5 Cartilage and bone provide a strong supporting framework Cartilage Bone 4-6 Tissue membranes are physical barriers of four types: mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial Mucous Membranes Serous Membranes The Cutaneous Membrane Synovial Membranes 4-7 Connective tissue creates the internal framework of the body 4-8 The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth Skeletal Muscle Tissue Cardiac Muscle Tissue Smooth Muscle Tissue 4-9 Neural tissue responds to stimuli and propagates electrical impulses throughout the body 4-10 The response to tissue injury involves inflammation and regeneration Inflammation Regeneration 4-11 With advancing age, tissue repair declines and cancer rates increase Aging and Tissue Structure Aging and Cancer Incidence Chapter Review Spotlight Inflammation and Regeneration Clinical Case The Rubber Girl Clinical Note Exfoliative Cytology Marfan’s Syndrome UNIT 2 Support and Movement 5 The Integumentary System An Introduction to the Integumentary System 5-1 The epidermis is composed of layers with various functions Stratum Basale Stratum Spinosum Stratum Granulosum Stratum Lucidum Stratum Corneum 5-2 Factors influencing skin color are epidermal pigmentation and dermal circulation The Role of Epidermal Pigmentation The Role of Dermal Circulation 5-3 Sunlight causes epidermal cells to convert a steroid into vitamin D3 5-4 Epidermal growth factor has several effects on the epidermis and epithelia 5-5 The dermis is the tissue layer that supports the epidermis Dermal Strength and Elasticity Cleavage Lines The Dermal Blood Supply Innervation of the Skin 5-6 The hypodermis connects the dermis to underlying tissues 5-7 Hair is composed of keratinized dead cells that have been pushed to the surface Hair Production The Hair Growth Cycle Types of Hairs Hair Color 5-8 Sebaceous glands and sweat glands are exocrine glands found in the skin Sebaceous Glands Sweat Glands Other Integumentary Glands Control of Glandular Secretions and the Homeostatic Role of the Integument 5-9 Nails are keratinized epidermal cells that protect the tips of fingers and toes 5-10 Several phases are involved in repairing the integument following an injury 5-11 Effects of aging include skin thinning, wrinkling, and reduced melanocyte activity Chapter Review Spotlight The Epidermis Clinical Case Skin Cells in Overdrive Clinical Note skin cancer Decubitis Ulcers Liposuction Burns and Grafts Skin Abnormalities 6 Osseous Tissue and Bone Structure An Introduction to the Skeletal System 6-1 The skeletal system has five primary functions 6-2 Bones are classified according to shape and structure, and they have a variety of surface markings Bone Shapes Bone Markings Bone Structure 6-3 Bone is composed of matrix and several types of cells: osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts Bone Matrix Bone Cells. 6-4 Compact bone contains parallel osteons, and spongy bone contains trabeculae Compact Bone Structure Spongy Bone Structure The Periosteum and Endosteum 6-5 Bones form through ossification and enlarge through appositional growth and remodeling Endochondral Ossification Intramembranous Ossification The Blood and Nerve Supplies to Bone 6-6 Bone growth and development depend on a balance between bone formation and bone resorption 6-7 Exercise, hormones, and nutrition affect bone development and the skeletal system The Effects of Exercise on Bone Nutritional and Hormonal Effects on Bone 6-8 Calcium plays a critical role in bone physiology The Skeleton as a Calcium Reserve Hormones and Calcium Balance 6-9 A fracture is a crack or break in a bone 6-10 Osteopenia has a widespread effect on aging skeletal tissue Chapter Review Spotlight Endochondral Ossification Types of Fractures and Steps in Repair Clinical Case A Case of Child Abuse? Clinical Note Heterotopic Bone Formation Abnormal Bone Development 7 The Axial Skeleton An Introduction to the Axial Skeleton 7-1 The 80 bones of the head and trunk make up the axial skeleton 7-2 The skull is composed of 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones 7-3 Each orbital complex contains an eye, and the nasal complex encloses the nasal cavities The Orbital Complexes The Nasal Complex 7-4 Fontanelles are non-ossified areas between cranial bones that allow for brain growth in infants and small children 7-5 The vertebral column has four spinal curves Spinal Curvature Vertebral Anatomy 7-6 The five vertebral regions are the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions Cervical Vertebrae Thoracic Vertebrae Lumbar Vertebrae The Sacrum The Coccyx 7-7 The thoracic cage protects organs in the chest and provides sites for muscle attachment The Ribs The Sternum Chapter Review Spotlight Sectional Anatomy of the Skull Clinical Case Knocked Out Clinical Note Temporomandibular Joint Syndrome Sinusitis Craniostenosis Kyphosis, Lordosis, and Scoliosis 8 The Appendicular Skeleton An Introduction to the Appendicular Skeleton 8-1 The pectoral girdles—the clavicles and scapulae—attach the upper limbs to the axial skeleton The Clavicles The Scapulae 8-2 The upper limbs are adapted for free movement The Humerus The Ulna The Radius The Carpal Bones The Metacarpal Bones and Phalanges 8-3 The pelvic girdle—two hip bones—attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton The Pelvic Girdle The Pelvis 8-4 The lower limbs are adapted for movement and support The Femur The Patella The Tibia The Fibula The Tarsal Bones The Metatarsal Bones and Phalanges 8-5 Sex differences and age account for individual skeletal variation Chapter Review Spotlight Sex Differences in the Human Skeleton Clinical Case The Orthopedic Surgeon’s Nightmare Clinical Note Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Hip Fracture Runner’s Knee Stress Fractures Congenital Talipes Equinovarus 9 Joint An Introduction to Joints 9-1 Joints are categorized according to their range of motion or structure 9-2 Synovial joints are freely movable joints containing synovial fluid Articular Cartilage Synovial Fluid Accessory Structures Factors That Stabilize Synovial Joints 9-3 The structure and function of synovial joints enable various skeletal movements Types of Movements at Synovial Joints 9-4 Intervertebral discs and ligaments are structural components of intervertebral joints Intervertebral Discs Intervertebral Ligaments Vertebral Movements The shoulder is a ball-and-socket joint, and the elbow is a hinge joint The Shoulder Joint The Elbow Joint 9-6 The hip is a ball-and-socket joint, and the knee is a hinge joint The Hip Joint The Knee Joint 9-7 With advancing age, arthritis and other degenerative changes impair joint mobility 9-8 The skeletal system supports and stores energy and minerals for other body systems Chapter Review Spotlight Joint Movement Clinical Case What’s Ailing the Birthday Girl? Clinical Note Bursitis and Bunions Dislocation and Subluxation Damage to Intervertebral Discs Knee Injuries 10 Muscle Tissue An Introduction to Muscle Tissue 10-1 Skeletal muscle performs six major functions 10-2 A skeletal muscle contains muscle tissue, connective tissues, blood vessels, and nerves Organization of Connective Tissues Blood Vessels and Nerves 10-3 Skeletal muscle fibers have distinctive features The Sarcolemma and Transverse Tubules Myofibrils The Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Sarcomeres Sliding Filaments and Muscle Contraction 10-4 The nervous system communicates with skeletal muscles at the neuromuscular junction Electrical Impulses and Excitable Membranes The Control of Skeletal Muscle Activity Excitation–Contraction Coupling Relaxation 10-5 Sarcomere shortening and muscle fiber stimulation produce tension Tension Production by Muscle Fibers Tension Production by Skeletal Muscles Motor Units and Tension Production 10-6 ATP provides energy for muscle contraction ATP and CP Reserves ATP Generation Energy Use and the Level of Muscular Activity Muscle Fatigue The Recovery Period Hormones and Muscle Metabolism 10-7 Muscle performance capabilities depend on muscle fiber type and physical conditioning Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers Muscle Performance and the Distribution of Muscle Fibers Muscle Hypertrophy and Atrophy Physical Conditioning 10-8 Cardiac muscle tissue differs structurally and functionally from skeletal muscle tissue Structural Characteristics of Cardiac Muscle Tissue Functional Characteristics of Cardiac Muscle Tissue 10-9 Smooth muscle tissue differs structurally and functionally from skeletal and cardiac muscle tissue Structural Characteristics of Smooth Muscle Tissue Functional Characteristics of Smooth Muscle Tissue Chapter Review Spotlight Events at the Neuromuscular Junction Excitation–Contraction Coupling The Contraction Cycle and Cross-Bridge Formation Clinical Case A Real Eye Opener Clinical Note Tetanus Rigor Mortis Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness 11 The Muscular System An Introduction to the Muscular System 11-1 Fascicle arrangement is correlated with muscle power and range of motion Parallel Muscles Convergent Muscles Pennate Muscles Circular Muscles 11-2 The three classes of levers increase muscle efficiency 11-3 Muscle origins are at the fixed end of muscles, and insertions are at the movable end of muscles Origins and Insertions Actions 11-4 Descriptive terms are used to name skeletal muscles Location in the Body Origin and Insertion Fascicle Organization Position Structural Characteristics Action Axial and Appendicular Muscles 11-5 Axial muscles are muscles of the head and neck, vertebral column, trunk, and pelvic floor Muscles of the Head and Neck Muscles of the Vertebral Column Oblique and Rectus Muscles Muscles of the Pelvic Floor 11-6 Appendicular muscles are muscles of the shoulders, upper limbs, pelvis, and lower limbs Muscles of the Shoulders and Upper Limbs Muscles of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs 11-7 With advancing age, the size and power of muscle tissue decrease 11-8 Exercise produces responses in multiple body systems Chapter Review Spotlight Muscle Action Clinical Case The Weekend Warrior Clinical Note Intramuscular Injections Hernia UNIT 3 Control and Regulation 12 Neural Tissue An Introduction to Neural Tissue 12-1 The nervous system has anatomical and functional divisions The Anatomical Divisions of the Nervous System The Functional Divisions of the Nervous System 12-2 Neurons are nerve cells specialized for intercellular communication The Structure of Neurons The Classification of Neurons 12-3 CNS and PNS neuroglia support and protect neurons Neuroglia of the Central Nervous System Neuroglia of the Peripheral Nervous System Neural Responses to Injuries 12-4 The membrane potential is the electrical potential of the cell’s interior relative to its surroundings The Membrane Potential Changes in the Membrane Potential Graded Potentials 12-5 An action potential is an electrical event The All-or-None Principle The All-or-None Principle Propagation of Action Potentials 12-6 Axon diameter, in addition to myelin, affects propagation speed 12-7 At synapses, communication occurs among neurons or between neurons and other cells Synaptic Activity General Properties of Synapses Cholinergic Synapses 12-8 Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators have various functions The Activities of Other Neurotransmitters Neuromodulators How Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators Work 12-9 Individual neurons process information by integrating excitatory and inhibitory stimuli Postsynaptic Potentials Presynaptic Inhibition and Presynaptic Facilitation The Rate of Generation of Action Potentials Chapter Review Spotlight Resting Membrane Potential Generation of an Action Potential Propagation of an Action Potential Clinical Case Did Franklin D. Roosevelt Really Have Polio? Clinical Note Rabies Tumors Demyelination 13 The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Spinal Reflexes 13-1 The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system (CNS), and the cranial nerves and spinal nerves make up the peripheral nervous system (PNS) 13-2 The spinal cord is surrounded by three meninges and carries sensory and motor information Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord Spinal Meninges 13-3 Gray matter integrates information and initiates commands, and white matter carries information from place to place Organization of Gray Matter Organization of White Matter 13-4 Spinal nerves form plexuses that are named according to their level of emergence from the vertebral canal Anatomy of Spinal Nerves Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves Nerve Plexuses 13-5 Interneurons are organized into functional groups called neuronal pools 13-6 Reflexes are rapid, automatic responses to stimuli The Reflex Arc Classification of Reflexes 13-7 Spinal reflexes vary in complexity Monosynaptic Reflexes Polysynaptic Reflexes 13-8 The brain can affect spinal cord–based reflexes Voluntary Movements and Reflex Motor Patterns Reinforcement and Inhibition Chapter Review Spotlight Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves Spinal Reflexes Clinical Case Prom Night Clinical Note Anesthesia Shingles Sensory Innervation in the Hand Sensory Innervation in the Ankle and Foot An Introduction to the Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Spinal Reflexes 14 The Brain and Cranial Nerves An Introduction to the Brain and Cranial Nerves 14-1 The brain has several principal structures, each with specific functions Major Brain Regions and Landmarks Embryology of the Brain Ventricles of the Brain The brain is protected and supported by the cranial meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood–brain barrier The Cranial Meninges Cerebrospinal Fluid The Blood Supply to the Brain 14-3 The medulla oblongata is continuous with the spinal cord and contains vital centers 14-4 The pons contains nuclei and tracts that carry or relay sensory and motor information 14-5 The cerebellum coordinates learned and reflexive patterns of muscular activity at the subconscious level 14-6 The midbrain regulates auditory and visual reflexes and controls alertness 14-7 The diencephalon integrates sensory information with motor output at the subconscious level The Thalamus The Hypothalamus 14-8 The limbic system is a group of tracts and nuclei that function in emotion, motivation, and memory 14-9 The cerebrum, the largest region of the brain, contains motor, sensory, and association areas The Cerebral Cortex The White Matter of the Cerebrum The Basal Nuclei Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex 14-10 Cranial reflexes involve sensory and motor fibers of cranial nerves Chapter Review Spotlight Formation and Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid Clinical Case The Neuroanatomist’s Stroke Clinical Note Epidural and Subdural Hemorrhages Disconnection Syndrome Aphasia and Dyslexia 15 Sensory Pathways and the Somatic Nervous System An Introduction to Sensory Pathways and the Somatic Nervous System 15-1 Sensory information from all parts of the body is routed to the somatosensory cortex 15-2 Sensory receptors connect our internal and external environments with the nervous system The Detection of Stimuli The Interpretation of Sensory Information Adaptation 15-3 General sensory receptors are classified by the type of stimulus that excites them Nociceptors Thermoreceptors Mechanoreceptors Chemoreceptors 15-4 Separate pathways carry somatic sensory and visceral sensory information Visceral Sensory Pathways 15-5 The somatic nervous system is an efferent division that controls skeletal muscles The Corticospinal Pathway The Medial and Lateral Pathways The Basal Nuclei and Cerebellum Levels of Processing and Motor Control Chapter Review Spotlight Somatic Sensory Pathways Clinical Case Living with Cerebral Palsy Clinical Note Assessment of Tactile Sensitivities Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Cerebral Palsy 16 The Autonomic Nervous System and Higher-Order Functions An Introduction to the Autonomic Nervous System and Higher-Order Functions 16-1 The autonomic nervous system is involved in the unconscious regulation of visceral functions and has sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions Organization of the ANS Divisions of the ANS 16-2 The sympathetic division consists of preganglionic neurons and ganglionic neurons involved in using energy and increasing metabolic rate Organization and Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division Sympathetic Activation 16-3 Stimulation of sympathetic neurons leads to the release of various neurotransmitters Sympathetic Stimulation and the Release of NE and E Sympathetic Stimulation and the Release of ACh and NO Summary: The Sympathetic Division 16-4 The parasympathetic division consists of reganglionic neurons and ganglionic neurons involved in conserving energy and lowering metabolic rate Organization and Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division Parasympathetic Activation 16-5 Stimulation of parasympathetic neurons leads to the release of the neurotransmitter ACh Neurotransmitter Release Membrane Receptors and Responses Summary: The Parasympathetic Division 16-6 The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions interact, creating dual innervation 16-7 Visceral reflexes play a role in the integration and control of autonomic functions Visceral Reflexes Higher Levels of Autonomic Control The Integration of SNS and ANS Activities 16-8 Higher-order functions include memory and states of consciousness Memory States of Consciousness 16-9 Neurotransmitters influence brain chemistry and behavior 16-10 Aging produces various structural and functional changes in the nervous system Chapter Review Spotlight Overview of the Autonomic Nervous System Clinical Case The First Day in Anatomy Lab Clinical Note Amnesia Categorizing Nervous System Disorders Alzheimer’s Disease 17 The Special Senses 17-1 Olfaction, the sense of smell, involves olfactory receptors responding to chemical stimuli Olfactory Receptors Olfactory Pathways Olfactory Discrimination 17-2 Gustation, the sense of taste, involves taste receptors responding to chemical stimuli Taste Receptors Gustatory Pathways Gustatory Discrimination 17-3 Internal eye structures contribute to vision, while accessory eye structures provide protection Accessory Structures of the Eye The Eye 17-4 Photoreceptors respond to light and change it into electrical signals essential to visual physiology Visual Physiology The Visual Pathways 17-5 Equilibrium sensations originate within the internal ear, while hearing involves the detection and interpretation of sound waves Anatomy of the Ear Equilibrium Hearing Chapter Review Spotlight Olfaction and Gustation Refractive Problems Photoreception Clinical Case A Chance to See Clinical Note Diabetic Retinopathy Detached Retina Glaucoma Motion Sickness An Introduction to the Special Senses 18 The Endocrine System An Introduction to the Endocrine System 18-1 Homeostasis is preserved through intercellular communication 18-2 The endocrine system regulates physiological processes through the binding of hormones to receptors Classes of Hormones Secretion and Distribution of Hormones Mechanisms of Hormone Action Control of Endocrine Activity by Endocrine Reflexes 18-3 The bilobed pituitary gland is an endocrine organ that releases nine peptide hormones The Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland The Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland Summary: The Hormones of the Pituitary Gland 18-4 The thyroid gland lies inferior to the larynx and requires iodine for hormone synthesis Thyroid Follicles and Thyroid Hormones Functions of Thyroid Hormones The C Cells of the Thyroid Gland and Calcitonin 18-5 The four parathyroid glands, embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland, secrete parathyroid hormone to elevate blood Ca2+ 18-6 The adrenal glands, consisting of a cortex and medulla, cap the kidneys and secrete several hormones The Adrenal Cortex The Adrenal Medulla 18-7 The pineal gland, attached to the roof of the third ventricle, secretes melatonin 18-8 The pancreas is both an exocrine organ and endocrine gland The Pancreatic Islets Insulin Glucagon 18-9 Many organs have secondary endocrine functions The Intestines The Kidneys The Heart The Thymus The Gonads Adipose Tissue 18-10 Hormones interact to produce coordinated physiological responses Role of Hormones in Growth Aging and Hormone Production Chapter Review Spotlight Structural Classification of Hormones G Proteins and Second Messengers Diabetes Mellitus The General Adaptation Syndrome Clinical Case Stones, Bones, and Groans Clinical Note Diabetes Insipidus Endocrine Disorders Hormones and Athletic Performance UNIT 4 Fluids and Transport 19 Blood An Introduction to Blood and the Cardiovascular System 19-1 Blood has several important functions and unique physical characteristics 19-2 Plasma, the fluid portion of blood, contains significant quantities of plasma proteins Plasma Proteins 19-3 Red blood cells, formed by erythropoiesis, contain hemoglobin that can be recycled Abundance of RBCs Structure of RBCs Hemoglobin RBC Formation and Turnover RBC Production 19-4 The ABO blood types and Rh system are based on antigen–antibody responses Cross-Reactions in Transfusions Testing for Transfusion Compatibility 19-5 The various types of white blood cells contribute to the body’s defenses WBC Circulation and Movement Types of WBCs The Differential Count and Changes in WBC Profiles WBC Production 19-6 Platelets, disc-shaped structures formed from megakaryocytes, function in the clotting process Platelet Functions Platelet Production 19-7 Hemostasis involves vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and blood coagulation The Vascular Phase The Platelet Phase The Coagulation Phase Fibrinolysis Chapter Review Spotlight The Composition of Whole Blood Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn Clinical Case A Mysterious Blood Disorder Clinical Note Collecting Blood for Analysis Plasma Expanders Abnormal Hemoglobin 20 The Heart An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System 20-1 The heart is a four-chambered organ, supplied by the coronary circulation, that pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body The Pericardium Superficial Anatomy of the Heart The Heart Wall Cardiac Muscle Tissue Internal Anatomy and Organization Connective Tissues and the Cardiac Skeleton The Blood Supply to the Heart 20-2 The conducting system distributes electrical impulses through the heart, and an electrocardiogram records the associated electrical events Cardiac Physiology The Conducting System The Electrocardiogram Contractile Cells 20-3 Events during a complete heartbeat make up a cardiac cycle Phases of the Cardiac Cycle Pressure and Volume Changes in the Cardiac Cycle Heart Sounds 20-4 Cardiodynamics examines the factors that affect cardiac output Overview: Factors Affecting Cardiac Output Factors Affecting the Heart Rate Factors Affecting the Stroke Volume Summary: The Control of Cardiac Output The Heart and the Cardiovascular System Chapter Review Spotlight Heart Disease and Heart Attacks Cardiac Arrhythmias Clinical Case A Needle to the Chest Clinical Note Abnormal Conditions Affecting Cardiac Output 21 Blood Vessels and Circulation An Introduction to Blood Vessels and Circulation 21-1 Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins differ in size, structure, and functional properties The Structure of Vessel Walls Differences between Arteries and Veins Capillaries Veins The Distribution of Blood 21-2 Pressure and resistance determine blood flow and affect rates of capillary exchange Pressure Total Peripheral Resistance An Overview of Cardiovascular Pressures Capillary Pressures and Capillary Exchange 21-3 Cardiovascular regulatory mechanisms involve autoregulation, neural mechanisms, and endocrine responses Autoregulation of Blood Flow within Tissues Neural Mechanisms Hormones and Cardiovascular Regulation 21-4 The cardiovascular system adapts to physiological stress and maintains a special vascular supply to the brain, heart, and lungs The Cardiovascular Response to Exercise The Cardiovascular Response to Hemorrhaging Vascular Supply to Special Regions 21-5 The pulmonary and systemic circuits of the cardiovascular system exhibit three general functional patterns 21-6 In the pulmonary circuit, deoxygenated blood enters the lungs in arteries, and oxygenated blood leaves the lungs by veins 21-7 The systemic circuit carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to tissues and organs other than the pulmonary exchange surfaces, and returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium Systemic Arteries Systemic Veins 21-8 Modifications of fetal and maternal cardiovascular systems promote the exchange of materials, and independence occurs at birth Placental Blood Supply Fetal Circulation in the Heart and Great Vessels Cardiovascular Changes at Birth 21-9 Aging affects the blood, heart, and blood vessels Chapter Review Spotlight Congenital Heart Problems Clinical Case Did Ancient Mummies Have Atherosclerosis? Clinical Note Arteriosclerosis Edema 22 The Lymphatic System and Immunity 22-1 Surface barriers and internal defenses make up innate defenses, and lymphocytes provide adaptive defenses 22-2 Lymphatic vessels, lymphocytes, lymphoid tissues, and lymphoid organs function in body defenses Functions of the Lymphatic System Lymphatic Vessels Lymphocytes Lymphoid tissues Lymphoid Organs The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses 22-3 Innate (nonspecific) defenses do not discriminate between potential threats and respond the same regardless of the invader Physical Barriers Phagocytes Immune Surveillance Interferons Complement System Inflammation, Fever 22-4 Adaptive (specific) defenses respond to individual threats and are either cell-mediated or antibody mediated Forms of Immunity Properties of Adaptive Immunity An Introduction to the Immune Response T cells play a role in initiating, maintaining, and controlling the immune response Antigen Presentation Antigen Recognition Activation of CD8 T Cells Activation of CD4 T Cells 22-6 B cells respond to antigens by producing specific antibodies B Cell Sensitization and Activation Antibody Structure Primary and Secondary Responses to Antigen Exposure Summary of the Immune Response 22-7 Immunocompetence enables a normal immune response; abnormal responses result in immune disorders The Development of Immunocompetence Cytokines of the Immune System Immune Disorders Stress and the Immune Response 22-8 The immune response diminishes as we age 22-9 The nervous and endocrine systems influence the immune response Chapter Review Spotlight Cytokines of the Immune System Clinical Case Isn’t There a Vaccine for That? Clinical Note Cancer and the Lymphatic System Graft Rejection and Immunosuppression AIDS An Introduction to the Lymphatic System and Immunity UNIT 5 Environmental Exchange 23 The Respiratory System An Introduction to the Respiratory System 23-1 The respiratory system, organized into an upper respiratory system and a lower respiratory system, has several basic functions Functions of the Respiratory System Organization of the Respiratory System 23-2 Located outside the thoracic cavity, the upper respiratory system consists of the nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx The Nose, Nasal Cavity, and Paranasal Sinuses The Pharynx 23-3 Composed of cartilages, ligaments, and muscles, the larynx produces sound Cartilages and Ligaments of the Larynx Sound Production The Laryngeal Musculature 23-4 The trachea and primary bronchi convey air to and from the lungs The Trachea The Primary Bronchi 23-5 Enclosed by pleural cavities, the lungs are paired organs containing alveoli, which permit gaseous exchange Lobes and Surfaces of the Lungs The Bronchi The Bronchioles Alveolar Ducts and Alveoli The Blood Supply to the Lungs The Pleural Cavities and Pleural Membranes 23-6 External respiration and internal respiration allow gaseous exchange within the body 23-7 Pulmonary ventilation—the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the lungs—involves pressure changes, muscle movement, and respiratory rates and volumes The Movement of Air Pressure Changes during Inhalation and Exhalation The Mechanics of Breathing Respiratory Rates and Volumes 23-8 Gas exchange depends on the partial pressures of gases and the diffusion of molecules The Gas Laws Diffusion and Respiratory Function 23-9 Most oxygen is transported bound to hemoglobin; and carbon dioxide is transported in three ways: as carbonic acid, bound to hemoglobin, or dissolved in plasma Oxygen Transport Carbon Dioxide Transport Summary: Gas Transport 23-10 Neurons in the medulla oblongata and pons, along with respiratory reflexes, control respiration Local Regulation of Gas Transport and Alveolar Function The Respiratory Centers of the Brain Respiratory Reflexes Voluntary Control of Respiration Changes in the Respiratory System at Birth 23-11 Respiratory performance declines with age 23-12 The respiratory system provides oxygen to, and eliminates carbon dioxide from, other organ systems Chapter Review Spotlight Respiratory Muscles and Pulmonary Ventilation Control of Respiration Clinical Case How Long Shoulda Cough Last? Clinical Note Breakdown of the Respiratory Defense System Pneumothorax Decompression Sickness Blood Gas Analysis Carbon Monoxide Poisoning Emphysema and Lung Cancer 24 The Digestive System An Introduction to the Digestive System 24-1 The digestive system, consisting of the digestive tract and accessory organs, has overlapping food utilization functions Functions of the Digestive System The Digestive Organs and the Peritoneum Histology of the Digestive Tract The Movement of Digestive Materials Control of Digestive Functions 24-2 The oral cavity contains the tongue, salivary glands, and teeth, each with specific functions The Tongue Salivary Glands The Teeth 24-3 The pharynx is a passageway between the oral cavity and esophagus 24-4 The esophagus is a muscular tube that transports solids and liquids from the pharynx to the stomach Histology of the Esophagus Swallowing 24-5 The stomach is a J-shaped organ that receives the bolus from the esophagus and aids in chemical and mechanical digestion Anatomy of the Stomach Regulation of Gastric Activity Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach 24-6 The small intestine digests and absorbs nutrients, and associated glandular organs assist with digestive processes The Small Intestine Histology of the Small Intestine Intestinal Secretions Intestinal Movements The Pancreas The Liver The Gallbladder The Coordination of Secretion and Absorption 24-7 The large intestine is divided into three parts with regional specialization The Cecum The Colon The Rectum Histology of the Large Intestine Physiology of the Large Intestine 24-8 Digestion is the chemical alteration of food that allows the absorption and use of nutrients The Processing and Absorbing of Nutrients Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption Lipid Digestion and Absorption Protein Digestion and Absorption Water Absorption Ion Absorption 24-9 Many age-related changes affect digestion and absorption 24-10 The digestive system is extensively integrated with other body systems Chapter Review Spotlight Regulation of Gastric Activity Chemical Events of Digestion Clinical Case An Unusual Transplant Clinical Note Peritonitis Epithelial Renewal and Repair Mumps Gastritis and Peptic Ulcers Pancreatitis Cirrhosis Colorectal Cancer Inflammatory and Infectious Disorders of the Digestive System 25 Metabolism and Energetics An Introduction to Metabolism and Energetics 25-1 Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions in the body, and energetics refers to the flow and transformation of energy 25-2 Carbohydrate metabolism involves glycolysis, ATP production, and gluconeogenesis Glycolysis Mitochondrial ATP Production Energy Yield of Glycolysis and Cellular Respiration Gluconeogenesis 25-3 Lipid metabolism involves lipolysis, beta-oxidation, and the transport and distribution of lipids as free fatty acids and lipoproteins Lipid Catabolism Lipid Synthesis Lipid Transport and Distribution 25-4 Protein catabolism involves transamination and deamination, whereas protein synthesis involves amination and transamination Amino Acid Catabolism Protein Synthesis 25-5 The body experiences two patterns of metabolic activity: the absorptive and postabsorptive states 25-6 Adequate nutrition is necessary to prevent deficiency disorders and ensure physiological functioning Food Groups and a Balanced Diet Nitrogen Balance Minerals Vitamins Diet and Disease 25-7 Metabolic rate is the average caloric expenditure, and thermoregulation involves balancing heat-producing and heat-losing mechanisms Energy Gains and Losses Thermoregulation Chapter Review Spotlight Absorptive and Postabsorptive States Clinical Case The Miracle Supplement Clinical Note Carbohydrate Loading Dietary Fats and Cholesterol Vitamins Alcohol Induced Hypothermia Thermoregulatory Disorders 26 The Urinary System An Introduction to the Urinary System 26-1 The kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra make up the urinary system, which has three primary functions 26-2 Kidneys are highly vascular organs containing functional units called nephrons, which filter, reabsorb, and secrete Sectional Anatomy of the Kidneys Blood Supply and Innervation of the Kidneys The Nephron 26-3 Different segments of the nephron form urine by filtration, reabsorption, and secretion 26-4 Hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressures influence glomerular filtration pressure, which in turn affects the glomerular filtration rate Filtration Pressures The Glomerular Filtration Rate Control of the GFR 26-5 Countercurrent multiplication, antidiuretic hormone, and aldosterone affect reabsorption and secretion Reabsorption and Secretion at the PCT The Nephron Loop and Countercurrent Multiplication Reabsorption and Secretion at the DCT Reabsorption and Secretion along the Collecting System The Control of Urine Volume and Osmotic Concentration The Function of the Vasa Recta The Composition of Normal Urine 26-6 Urine is transported by the ureters, stored in the bladder, and eliminated through the urethra, aided by the micturition reflex The Ureters The Urethra The Micturition Reflex and Urination 26-7 Age-related changes affect kidney function and the micturition reflex 26-8 The urinary system is one of several body systems involved in waste excretion Chapter Review Spotlight Summary of Renal Function Clinical Case A Case of “Hidden” Bleeding Clinical Note Analysis of Renal Blood Flow Glomerulonephritis Diuretics Urinary Obstruction Renal Failure and Kidney Transplant 27 Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid–Base Balance An Introduction to Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid–Base Balance 27-1 Fluid balance, electrolyte balance, and acid–base balance are interrelated and essential to homeostasis 27-2 The ECF and ICF make up the fluid compartments, which also contain cations and anions The ECF and the ICF Basic Concepts in the Regulation of Fluids and ELectrolytes An Overview of the Primary Regulatory Hormones The Interplay between Fluid Balance and Electrolyte Balance 27-3 Hydrostatic and osmotic pressures regulate the movement of water and electrolytes to maintain fluid balance Fluid Movement within the ECF Fluid Gains and Losses Fluid Shifts 27-4 Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, and chloride balance is essential for maintaining homeostasis Sodium Balance Potassium Balance Balance of Other Electrolytes 27-5 In acid–base balance, regulation of hydrogen ions in body fluids involves buffer systems and respiratory and renal compensatory mechanisms The Importance of pH Control Types of Acids in the Body Mechanisms of pH Control Maintenance of Acid–Base Balance 27-6 Respiratory acidosis/alkalosis and metabolic acidosis/alkalosis are classes of acid–base balance disturbances Respiratory Acidosis Respiratory Alkalosis Metabolic Acidosis Metabolic Alkalosis The Detection of Acidosis and Alkalosis 27-7 Aging affects several aspects of fluid, electrolyte, and acid–base balance Chapter Review Spotlight The Diagnosis of Acid–Base Disorders Clinical Case When Treatment Makes You Worse Clinical Note Water and Weight Loss Athletes and Salt Loss UNIT 6 Continuity of Life 28 The Reproductive System An Introduction to the Reproductive System 28-1 Basic reproductive system structures are gonads, ducts, accessory glands and organs, and external genitalia 28-2 Spermatogenesis occurs in the testes, and hormones from the hypothalamus, anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and testes control male reproductive functions The Testes Spermatogenesis Mitosis and Meiosis The Anatomy of a Spermatozoon The Male Reproductive Tract The Accessory Glands Semen The External Genitalia Hormones and Male Reproductive Function 28-3 Oogenesis occurs in the ovaries, and hormones from the pituitary gland and gonads control female reproductive functions The Ovaries The Uterine Tubes The Uterus The Vagina The External Genitalia The Mammary Glands Hormones and Female Reproductive Function 28-4 The autonomic nervous system influences male and female sexual function Male Sexual Function Female Sexual Function 28-5 With age, decreasing levels of reproductive hormones cause functional changes Menopause The Male Climacteric 28-6 The reproductive system secretes hormones affecting growth and metabolism of all body systems Spotlight Regulation of Male Reproduction Regulation of Female Reproduction Clinical Case Chapter Review A Post-Game Mystery Clinical Note Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) Prostatic Hypertrophy and Prostate Cancer Ovarian Cancer Cervical Cancer Breast Cancer 29 Development and Inheritance An Introduction to Development and Inheritance 29-1 Development, marked by various stages, is a continuous process that occurs from fertilization to maturity 29-2 Fertilization—the fusion of a secondary oocyte and a spermatozoon—forms a zygote The Oocyte at Ovulation Oocyte Activation 29-3 Gestation consists of three stages of prenatal development: the first, second, and third trimesters 29-4 Cleavage, implantation, placentation, and embryogenesis are critical events of the first trimester Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation Implantation Placentation Embryogenesis 29-5 During the second and third trimesters, maternal organ systems support the developing fetus, and the uterus undergoes structural and functional changes Pregnancy and Maternal Systems Structural and Functional Changes in the Uterus 29-6 Labor consists of the dilation,expulsion, and placental stages Stages of Labor Premature Labor Difficult Deliveries Multiple Births 29-7 Postnatal stages are the neonatal period, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and maturity, followed by senescence The Neonatal Period, Infancy, and Childhood Adolescence and Maturity Senescence 29-8 Genes and chromosomes determine patterns of inheritance Patterns of Inheritance Sources of Individual Variation Sex-Linked Inheritance The Human Genome Project and Beyond Chapter Review Spotlight Extraembryonic Membranes and Placenta Formation Clinical Case The Twins That Looked Nothing Alike Clinical Note Abortion Chromosomal Abnormalities and Genetic Analysis Appendix The Composition of Minor Body Fluids The Chemistry of Blood, Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF), and Urine The Periodic Table Codon Chart Answers to Checkpoints, Review Questions, and Clinical Case Wrap-Ups Glossary A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Cover