The Ecology of Sandy Shores

Description

The Ecology of Sandy Shores, Third Edition, provides both a holistic and conceptual introduction for beginners, while also presenting an in-depth and cutting-edge analysis for researchers interested in sandy shores. This new edition focuses on resource use, and has also been updated to include recent findings, enhanced illustrations, and additional coverage on beach fisheries and global/climate change. In addition, this release presents insights on food webs, greater coverage on global biodiversity patterns in sandy beaches, and new insights on population patterns, behavior and threats. Research on beaches is difficult because of the dynamic nature of the environment. There is no other book covering the ecology of sandy beaches, despite the extent and economic importance of these systems. This book is designed to both provide the conceptual basis to introduce students to the basic principles of sandy shore ecology and to serve as a ready reference for doctoral students and researches working on these systems. It can also serve as a handbook for land and coastal managers. THE ECOLOGY OF SANDY SHORES......Page 1 Copyright......Page 2 Acknowledgments......Page 3 Alexander Claude Brown 1931–2005......Page 4 1 - Introduction......Page 5 2.2 The Littoral Active Zone......Page 8 Particle Size......Page 9 Penetrability......Page 13 Types of Waves......Page 14 Refraction......Page 15 Shoaling and Breaking......Page 16 Bound and Infragravity Waves: Surf Beat......Page 18 Tides......Page 19 Wind......Page 21 2.7 Interactions Among Beach Slope, Waves, Tides, and Sand......Page 23 2.8 Beach Indices......Page 24 Wave-Dominated Beaches......Page 25 Tidal Effects......Page 28 2.10 Circulation Cells and Mixing......Page 31 2.11 Embayments and Headlands......Page 32 2.12 Swash Climate......Page 33 2.14 Latitudinal Effects......Page 36 2.15 Conclusions......Page 37 Mineralogy......Page 39 Porosity......Page 40 Pore Size......Page 41 Moisture Content......Page 42 Thixotropy and Dilatancy......Page 43 Groundwater Discharge......Page 44 Beach Face Wave Run-up......Page 45 Subtidal Wave Pumping......Page 47 Volumes and Residence Times of Tide- and Wave-Driven Inputs......Page 48 Flow Patterns and Interstitial Climate......Page 50 Tidal Effects......Page 54 Influence on Beach Face Erosion/Accretion......Page 55 Zones of Interstitial Moisture......Page 56 Salinity......Page 58 Oxygen Concentrations......Page 59 Nutrients......Page 61 3.7 The Interstitial Environment......Page 62 3.8 Conclusions......Page 64 4.2 Benthic Microflora......Page 65 4.3 Surf-Zone Phytoplankton......Page 67 4.4 Seagrasses......Page 73 4.5 Conclusions......Page 74 Phylum: Cnidaria......Page 76 Phylum: Nemertea......Page 77 Phylum: Kinorhyncha......Page 78 Phylum: Annelida......Page 79 Phylum: Brachiopoda......Page 84 Phylum: Mollusca......Page 85 Phylum: Arthropoda......Page 88 Phylum: Bryozoa......Page 101 5.3 Conclusions......Page 102 6.1 Introduction......Page 103 Burrowing......Page 104 Surfing and Coping With Swash......Page 109 6.3 Rhythms of Activity......Page 111 6.4 Sensory Responses and Orientation......Page 117 6.5 Choice of Habitat......Page 120 6.6 Nutrition......Page 124 6.7 Respiration......Page 126 6.8 Environmental Tolerances......Page 130 6.9 Reproduction......Page 132 6.11 Avoidance of Predators......Page 134 6.12 Phenotypic Plasticity......Page 135 6.13 Conclusions......Page 137 7.1 Introduction......Page 139 Sample Area and Species Accumulation Curves......Page 140 Species–Area Relationships......Page 141 7.3 Taxonomic Composition......Page 143 Species Richness......Page 145 Abundance, Biomass, and Density......Page 147 Latitude......Page 149 Factors Controlling Large-Scale Patterns......Page 158 Deconstructing Diversity......Page 161 Other Trends: Body Size and Density......Page 163 Body Size......Page 164 Beach Length......Page 166 Alongshore Variation......Page 167 Across-Shore Variation......Page 170 Zonation......Page 171 Temporal Changes in Zonation......Page 176 7.6 Microscale: the Forgotten Dimension......Page 178 7.7 Species Interactions......Page 180 Trophic Relations......Page 181 Predation......Page 182 Competition......Page 184 Mutualism and Commensalism......Page 187 Disturbance, Succession, and Colonization......Page 189 7.8 Conclusions......Page 190 Latitude......Page 192 Beach Types, Zones, and Life Histories......Page 194 Metapopulations and Connectivity......Page 197 Long-Term Fluctuations......Page 202 Alongshore......Page 207 Across Shore......Page 210 Temporal Changes......Page 214 8.4 Microscale Patterns......Page 215 8.5 Conclusions......Page 217 9.1 Introduction......Page 218 9.2 Interstitial Climate......Page 219 9.4 Interstitial Biota......Page 220 9.5 Distribution of Interstitial Fauna......Page 223 9.6 Temporal Changes......Page 225 9.7 Meiofaunal Communities......Page 227 9.8 Trophic Relationships......Page 230 9.9 Biological Interactions......Page 231 9.10 Meiofauna and Pollution......Page 232 9.11 Conclusions......Page 233 Composition......Page 236 Sampling......Page 237 Migrations......Page 238 Distribution......Page 239 Food and Feeding Relationships......Page 241 Sampling......Page 242 Larvae, Juveniles, and Nursery Areas......Page 243 Surf-Zone Fish Assemblages......Page 248 Temporal Variability......Page 250 Spatial Variability......Page 253 Trophic Relationships......Page 255 10.4 Other Groups......Page 257 10.5 Conclusions......Page 258 11.2 Turtles......Page 260 Nesting......Page 262 Threats and Conservation......Page 264 Seasonality and Migrations......Page 265 Foraging......Page 266 Human Impacts......Page 269 11.4 Conclusions......Page 270 12.1 Introduction......Page 271 12.2 Food Sources......Page 272 12.3 Macroscopic Food Webs......Page 274 India......Page 278 Western Australia......Page 280 Eastern Cape, South Africa......Page 281 Uruguay......Page 282 Food Web Dynamics and Trophic Niche Shifts......Page 283 Other Spatiotemporal Variations in Organic Inputs......Page 287 12.4 Interstitial Food Webs......Page 288 Western Cape......Page 290 Eastern Cape......Page 291 12.5 The Microbial Loop in Surf Waters......Page 292 12.6 Energy Flow in Beach and Surf-zone Ecosystems......Page 295 12.7 Case Study: Sandy Beaches of the Eastern Cape......Page 296 12.8 Nutrient Cycling......Page 300 12.9 Conclusions......Page 305 13.2 The Physical Environment......Page 307 13.3 Coastal Dune Formation by Vegetation......Page 309 13.4 Dune Types......Page 310 13.5 Edaphic Features......Page 313 13.6 Water......Page 314 13.8 Dune Vegetation......Page 315 13.9 The Fauna......Page 320 13.10 Food Webs......Page 322 13.11 Dune–Beach Exchanges......Page 325 13.12 Conclusions......Page 327 Fishery Types......Page 328 Surf-Zone Fauna......Page 330 Supralittoral and Intertidal Benthic Invertebrates......Page 331 Intertidal Polychaetes and Crustaceans......Page 332 Clams......Page 334 System Structure......Page 337 Main Components......Page 339 Spatial Structure......Page 340 Metapopulations......Page 341 Ecological Effects of Fishing......Page 342 External Drivers......Page 343 14.4 Harvesting Phases and Long-term Trends......Page 345 Harvesting Phases......Page 347 Long-term Bioeconomic Trends......Page 348 Information Requirements for Monitoring Stock Condition......Page 352 Main Concepts......Page 355 Assessing Trends in Reference Points......Page 357 Governance......Page 360 Single Species and the EAF......Page 361 Spatially Explicit Strategies......Page 364 Territorial Use Rights and Privileges......Page 367 Case Study: The Surf Clam in Chile......Page 368 Case Study: Shellfishes in Galicia, Spain......Page 369 14.7 Conclusions......Page 370 15.1 Introduction......Page 372 Off-road Vehicles......Page 373 Trampling and Related Recreational Activities......Page 377 Beach Cleaning......Page 379 Eutrophication: Green and Golden Tides......Page 381 Crude Oil Pollution......Page 382 Plastics and Microplastics......Page 388 Sewage and Organic Enrichment......Page 390 Heavy Metals......Page 391 Effluents......Page 392 15.5 Biological Invasions......Page 394 15.6 Natural Perturbations......Page 395 15.7 Nourishment......Page 396 15.8 Mining......Page 399 The Role of Human Pressure......Page 400 Disrupting Sediment Transport......Page 402 15.10 Human Influence on the Evolution of Beaches......Page 406 Assessment Approaches: Warnings and Perspectives......Page 409 Indicators......Page 410 The Triad Approach in Pollution Assessments......Page 412 Toxicity Studies......Page 414 15.12 Conclusions......Page 415 16.1 Introduction......Page 418 Ocean Warming......Page 420 Sea-level Rise......Page 421 Extreme Events and Winds......Page 422 Life Histories and Differential Responses to Climate Change......Page 424 Distribution, Range Shifts, Mass Mortalities, and Extirpations......Page 427 Demography and Population Dynamics......Page 431 Community and Ecosystem Responses......Page 433 Tipping Points and Regime Shifts......Page 435 16.5 Socioeconomic Effects and Management......Page 436 Managing Climate Change Effects......Page 437 Effects on the Environment......Page 439 Effects on the Biota at Different Organizational Levels......Page 441 16.7 Conclusions......Page 447 17.1 Introduction......Page 448 17.2 The Fragile Littoral Active Zone......Page 449 Manage the LAZ as a Unit......Page 451 Protect the Foredunes as a Buffer......Page 452 Employ Setbacks to Keep the LAZ Intact......Page 453 Assess Shoreline Status and Erosion Risks......Page 456 Determine Pollution, Health, and Safety Levels......Page 458 Undertake Environmental Impact Assessments......Page 459 Objectives, Components, and Phases......Page 460 Restoration, Rehabilitation, and Mitigation......Page 462 Control Access and Estimate Carrying Capacity......Page 463 Mesoscale Zoning......Page 466 Manage Sandy-Beach Services as SESs......Page 468 Address Governance Structure and Processes......Page 469 Identify Relevant External Drivers......Page 473 Core Management Approaches......Page 474 Managing for Recreation, Conservation, and Multipurpose Use......Page 478 Conservation: Sundays River Beach, South Africa......Page 481 Mixed-Use, High Conflict Potential: Mon Repos, Queensland, Australia......Page 483 Limited Use: Maule, South Chile......Page 484 Conservation and the Role of Protected Areas......Page 485 Are Sandy-Beach Ecosystems at Risk......Page 488 17.5 Conclusions......Page 490 17.6 Epilogue......Page 492 The Chemical Environment of Sediments......Page 493 Glossary......Page 495 References......Page 499 B......Page 539 C......Page 541 E......Page 542 F......Page 543 H......Page 544 I......Page 545 L......Page 546 M......Page 547 N......Page 548 P......Page 549 S......Page 551 T......Page 554 X......Page 555 Z......Page 556