Neuroepidemiology in Tropical Health

Description

Neuroepidemiology in Tropical Health covers major neurological diseases of relevance in tropical settings and examines the specificities of epidemiology of neurological diseases in the context of tropical countries that face many challenges when compared to the developed world. Part One focuses on methods and their eventual specificities, and how such methods, like sampling, can be adapted for specific scenarios. Parts Two and Three discuss environmental factors and their consequences for neurology in the tropical world, as well as large geographical areas and their specificities. Finally, Part Four presents relevant neurological diseases in in-depth chapters. This invaluable information will help readers recognize the various neurological conditions presented, with the inclusion of their aetiologies and treatment in tropical areas. The book therefore fills a gap in the neuroepidemiology literature, with chapters written by an international collection of experienced authors in the field. Front Cover Neuroepidemiology in Tropical Health Copyright Page Contents List of Contributors Foreword References Is Tropical Neurology Specific? Cultural Issues The Role of Sunshine The Role of Genetic Factors References I. Fundamental Concepts 1 Methodological Challenges of Neuroepidemiological Studies in Low- and Middle-Income Countries 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Study design and Feasibility in the Field 1.3 General Context 1.3.1 Geographical Difficulties 1.3.2 How to Move Forward? 1.3.3 Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis 1.3.4 Socioeconomic and Sociocultural Factors 1.4 Difficulties in the Availability and Mobilization of Data 1.4.1 Medical Data 1.4.2 General Population Census 1.4.3 Cartography and Geographical Information Systems 1.5 Study Design 1.5.1 Geographical and Logistical Challenges 1.5.2 Demographic and Follow-Up Issues 1.6 Clinical and Regulatory Issues 1.6.1 International Ethic Rules 1.6.2 Suspected Cases Ascertainment 1.6.3 Diagnostic and Treatment 1.7 Design-Specific Issues 1.7.1 Cases Census and Sample Studies 1.7.2 Involvement of Institutions and Key Stakeholders 1.7.3 Medical Examinations, Biological Specimens and Laboratory Tests 1.7.4 Monitoring and New Technologies 1.8 Valorization: Scientific and Public Health Issues 1.8.1 International Acknowledgments of the Works Conducted in Tropical Areas 1.8.2 Advocacy—Policy and International Cooperation 1.9 Conclusion References II. Tropical Neuroepidemiology: Between Environment and Genetics 2 Sociocultural Factors 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Tropical Neuroepidemiology and Health Anthropology: For Effective Collaboration 2.2.1 The Expected and Assumed Collaborative Epidemiology/Anthropology 2.2.2 A Concept: Almost Exclusive Use of the Sociocultural Representation Theory 2.2.3 Health-Related Stigma 2.3 Mental Disorders and Traditional Beliefs in SSA 2.3.1 Explanatory Models of Mental Illness in SSA 2.3.1.1 What are the Theories of Mankind in SSA? 2.3.1.2 Causality of Mental Illness in SSA 2.3.1.3 Psychosis and Neurosis 2.3.1.4 Stigma and Mental Illness 2.3.1.5 Managing Mental Illness: Traditional or Modern Medicine? 2.4 Sociocultural Representations and Stigma in Epilepsy 2.4.1 Explanatory Models of Epilepsy 2.4.2 Symptomatic Denominations 2.4.3 Etiological Denominations 2.4.4 Beliefs About Epilepsy in SSA 2.4.4.1 Magical Causes (Evil-Spirit, Possession, and Witchcraft) 2.4.4.2 Contagion 2.4.4.3 “Biomedical Model”: Foreign Body Migration, Body Fluids-Bound, and Heredity 2.4.4.4 Epilepsy and Stigma 2.5 Sociocultural Representations and Stigma in Dementia 2.5.1 Models of Understanding of Dementia 2.5.2 Social Tolerance of People With Dementia: Representations and Stigma 2.6 Conclusion References Further Reading 3 Climatic Factors Under the Tropics 3.1 Introduction 3.2 A Physical Geographic Approach: The Climate and Its Characteristics 3.2.1 The Role of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone 3.2.2 Types of Tropical Climate 3.3 A Biogeographical Approach: How Climate’s Features Determine Natural Biomes and Ecosystems 3.3.1 The Marine Biome 3.3.2 Microbial Diversity and Biogeography 3.4 Biology: Adaptation and Acclimation to Tropical Climates 3.4.1 Thermal Tolerance 3.4.2 Water Availability 3.4.3 UVR and Airborne Propagation of Neurotropic Viruses 3.4.4 Thermoregulation in Man 3.4.5 Nutrition 3.5 Does the Tropical Climate Favor Pathogens and Infections in Humans? 3.5.1 Biogeography 3.5.2 Role of Environmental Conditions 3.5.3 Infections of Humans 3.5.4 Seasonality Under the Tropics 3.5.5 The Tropical Origin of Infectious Diseases 3.5.6 Fungal Proliferation Under the Tropics 3.5.7 Algal Blooms and Seafood Poisoning 3.6 Weather Events and Extreme Effects of Climate 3.7 A Health Geographical Approach: Case Studies of Climatic Features that Modulate Tropical Diseases 3.7.1 Mainly Climatic Determinants 3.7.1.1 Epidemic Meningococcal Meningitis 3.7.2 Complex Relations Between Climate, Soil, and Human Activities 3.7.2.1 Climate Impact on Tropical Endemic Diseases Vectors Ecology: Case Studies of Malaria and Human African Trypanosomia... 3.7.2.2 The Amazon Basin, Soil Chemical Composition, Soil–Air Interface, Climate Dependency, and Environmental (Surface Wat... 3.8 The “Boomerang Effect” Under the Tropics: Health Consequences of Anthropogenic Changes 3.8.1 The Bangladesh Story: Persistent Dryness, Safe Drinking Water Availability and Deep-Water Wells 3.8.2 Agriculture Under the Tropics 3.8.3 Perturbation of the Global Nutrient Cycles 3.8.4 Climate in Tropical Cities 3.9 Conclusions References Further Reading 4 Economic Aspects 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Health System Financing: Key Challenges 4.2.1 The Changing Landscape of Disease and Injury 4.2.2 Health Spending: Inefficient or Insufficient? 4.2.3 Composition of Health Spending 4.3 Economical Aspects Related to Chronic Neurological Diseases 4.3.1 Epilepsy 4.3.2 Dementia and Cognitive Disorders 4.3.2.1 The Global Burden of Disease Approach 4.3.2.2 Limitations of the GBD Approach 4.3.2.3 Alternative Approaches to Understanding the Economic Impact of Dementia 4.4 Conclusion References 5 Tropical Epidemiology: Nutritional Factors 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The Tools for Pointing Out Malnutrition and Obesity and Their Thresholds 5.2.1 Body Mass Index 5.2.2 Unintentional Loss of Weight 5.2.3 Main Other Anthopometric Assessments 5.2.4 Albuminemia 5.2.5 Dietician Survey 5.3 The Main Causes of Malnutrition During Neurological Diseases and Their Treatment 5.3.1 Disabilities 5.3.2 Anorexia 5.3.3 Swallowing Disorders 5.3.4 Disorders of Salivation 5.3.5 The Increase in Energy Expenditure 5.3.6 The Role of Therapeutics 5.4 Nutrition and Epilepsy in Tropical Countries 5.4.1 Malnutrition or Obesity as Possible Consequences of Epilepsy 5.4.2 Epilepsy Favored by Malnutrition 5.5 Nutrition and Dementia in Tropical Countries 5.5.1 Nutritional Status 5.5.2 Nutritional Factors Associated With Dementia 5.5.2.1 Malnutrition and Weight Loss 5.5.2.2 Food Consumption References 6 Genetics of Infections and Diseases Caused by Human Parasites Affecting the Central Nervous System 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Neurocysticercosis 6.3 Toxoplasmosis 6.4 Cerebral Malaria References III. Tropical Neuroepidemiology by Large Areas of the World 7 Asia 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Stroke 7.2.1 Incidence, Prevalence, and Mortality 7.2.2 Stroke Subtypes 7.2.3 Young Stroke 7.2.4 Other Causes of Stroke 7.3 Epilepsy 7.3.1 Prevalence and Incidence 7.3.2 Classification and Causes 7.3.3 Mortality 7.3.4 Psychosocial Burden 7.3.5 Treatment Gap 7.3.6 Steven–Johnson Syndrome Secondary to Carbamazepine 7.4 Headache 7.4.1 Prevalence of Primary Headache 7.4.2 Headache in the Elderly 7.4.3 Cultural Influence on Concepts and Management 7.5 Neuroinflammation 7.5.1 Multiple Sclerosis 7.5.2 Neuromyelitis Optica 7.6 Neuromuscular Disorders 7.6.1 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 7.6.2 Guillain–Barré Syndrome 7.6.3 Myasthenia Gravis 7.6.4 Muscle Diseases 7.6.5 Toxic Neuropathies 7.7 Movement Disorders 7.7.1 Parkinson’s Disease 7.7.2 Atypical Parkinsonian Syndromes 7.7.3 Huntington’s Disease 7.7.4 Other Movement Disorders 7.8 Dementia 7.8.1 Dementia Subtypes 7.9 CNS Infections 7.9.1 Bacteria 7.9.2 Viruses 7.9.3 Parasites 7.9.4 Fungus 7.10 Neurology Care 7.10.1 Number of Neurologists 7.10.2 Neuroimaging, Clinical Neurophysiology Services, and Pharmaceuticals 7.10.3 Training Programs for Neurologists 7.10.4 Regional Networking and Publication References 8 Neurologic Diseases in Tropical Oceania 8.1 Preamble 8.2 Tropical Australia 8.2.1 Overview 8.2.2 Geography and Health Resources 8.2.2.1 The Northern Territory 8.2.2.2 Queensland and Far North Queensland 8.2.2.3 The Kimberleys and North Western Australia 8.2.3 Indigenous Health 8.2.4 Neurology in Tropical Australia 8.2.4.1 Infectious Diseases: Protozoal and Nematode Infections 8.2.4.1.1 Malaria 8.2.4.1.2 Nematode-Induced Myositis 8.2.4.2 Infectious Diseases: Vector-Borne Viral Infections 8.2.4.2.1 Flaviviral Infections Host Immunity Target Populations Neurological Features of Flaviviral Infections Diagnosis of Flaviviral Infection Treatment Epidemiology of Arboviruses Climate and Animal Vectors and Other Modes of Transmission Seroprevalence 8.2.4.2.2 Murray Valley Encephalitis Virus 8.2.4.2.3 Kunjin Virus 8.2.4.2.4 Dengue Fever Clinical Features 8.2.4.2.5 Japanese Encephalitis Virus 8.2.4.2.6 Newer Viral Infections Associated With Encephalitis 8.2.4.3.1 Melioidosis Epidemiology Clinical Picture Pathology 8.2.4.3.2 Cryptococcus 8.2.4.3.3 Naegleria 8.2.4.3.4 Echinococcus 8.2.4.4 Non-infectious Neurological Diseases 8.2.4.4.1 Kava 8.2.4.4.2 Inhalants 8.2.5 Cerebrovascular Disease 8.2.6 Rheumatic Fever and Rhematic Heart Disease 8.2.7 Otitis Media 8.3 Melanesia 8.3.1 Papua New Guinea 8.3.1.1 Trauma 8.3.1.2 Vector-Borne Viral Disease 8.3.1.2.1 Malaria 8.3.1.2.2 Zika Virus 8.3.1.2.3 Kuru 8.3.1.2.4 Cysticercosis 8.3.2 New Caledonia 8.3.3 Fiji 8.4 Micronesia 8.4.1 Guam 8.4.1.1 ALS–Parkinsonism–Dementia Complex 8.4.2 Marshall Islands 8.4.3 Kiribati and Nauru 8.5 Polynesia 8.5.1 Samoa and Tonga 8.6 Cerebrovascular Disease in Oceania Outside Australia 8.7 The Future Acknowledgments References and Selected Reading Newer Viral Encephalitides Murray Valley Encephalitis Dengue Fever Melioidosis Neurocysticercosis Malaria 9 Neuroepidemiology in Latin America 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Neuroepidemiology in Latin America 9.3 Epilepsy 9.4 Multiple Sclerosis 9.5 Dementia Syndromes 9.6 Stroke 9.7 Headache and Migraine 9.8 Extrapyramidal Disease and Parkinson’s Diseases 9.9 ALS 9.10 Neuroinfectious Diseases 9.11 Neuroepidemiology Training and Education 9.12 Conclusions References 10 Epidemiology of Neurological Disorders in Sub-Saharan Africa 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Infections of the Nervous System 10.2.1 HIV-Related Neurological Diseases 10.2.2 Neurosyphilis 10.2.3 Poliomyelitis 10.2.4 Leprosy 10.2.5 Tuberculous Spondylitis 10.3 Tropical Spastic Paraparesis 10.4 Neurofluorosis 10.5 Konzo 10.6 Stroke 10.7 Epilepsy 10.7.1 Etiologies of Epilepsy 10.7.1.1 CNS Infections 10.7.1.2 Birth Complications 10.7.1.3 Febrile Convulsions 10.7.1.4 Head Injuries 10.7.2 Genetic Factors 10.7.3 Burden 10.7.4 Prognosis 10.7.5 Treatment Options 10.8 Nodding Syndrome 10.9 Lathyrism 10.10 Dementia 10.11 Peripheral Neuropathies 10.12 Parkinson’s Disease 10.13 Conclusion References IV. Focus on Specific Neurological Syndromes or Diseases in Tropical Areas 11 Epilepsy 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Definitions 11.2.1 Epileptic Seizures 11.2.2 Epilepsy 11.3 Classification 11.3.1 Classification of Epilepsies and Epileptic Syndromes 11.3.2 Classification by Seizure Type 11.3.2.1 Focal Seizures 11.3.2.2 Generalized Seizures 11.3.2.2.1 Generalized Convulsive Seizures 11.3.2.2.2 Absence Seizures 11.3.2.2.3 Other Motor Seizures 11.3.2.2.4 Unclassifiable Seizures 11.4 Epidemiology 11.4.1 Methodological Considerations 11.4.1.1 Difficulties With Identification 11.4.1.2 Definition 11.4.1.3 The Problem of Diagnosis 11.4.2 The Prevalence of Epilepsy 11.4.3 The Incidence of Epilepsy 11.4.4 Seizure Type 11.5 The Causes of Epilepsy 11.5.1 Identifying the Etiology 11.5.2 Infection of CNS 11.5.2.1 Acute Bacterial Meningitis 11.5.2.2 Other Bacterial Suppurative Infections 11.5.2.3 Tuberculosis 11.5.2.4 Parasitic 11.5.2.5 Viral Infections 11.5.2.5.1 Human Immunodeficiency Virus 11.5.3 Traumatic Brain Injury 11.5.4 Perinatal Factors 11.5.5 Cerebrovascular Disease 11.5.6 Tumors 11.5.7 Family History of Epilepsy 11.6 Comorbidity 11.7 Mortality 11.8 Sociocultural Aspects 11.9 Treatment 11.10 Conclusion References 12 Dementia 12.1 Background 12.1.1 Brain Pathology 12.1.2 Burden 12.1.3 Prevention 12.1.4 An Aging and Changing World 12.2 Prevalence 12.2.1 Asia 12.2.2 Latin America and Caribbean 12.2.3 Sub-Saharan Africa 12.3 Incidence 12.3.1 Asia 12.3.2 Latin America and the Caribbean 12.3.3 Sub-Saharan Africa 12.4 Mortality 12.5 Trends References 13 Other Neurocognitive Disorders in Tropical Health (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Parkinson’s Disease) 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Clinical Features of ALS 13.2.1 Introduction 13.2.2 Clinical Symptoms and Signs 13.3 Clinical Features of Parkinsonian Disorders 13.3.1 Introduction 13.3.2 Clinical Features 13.3.3 Diagnostic Criteria 13.4 Epidemiology of ALS 13.4.1 Study of ALS in Tropical Areas, a Challenging Context 13.4.2 ALS Variability With Population’s Ancestral Origin 13.4.3 ALS in Africa 13.4.4 ALS in Oceania 13.4.5 ALS in Asia 13.4.6 ALS in Latin America 13.5 Epidemiology of PD 13.5.1 Prevalence of Parkinsonism in Tropical Countries 13.5.2 Hypothesis for the Lower Frequency of PD in Tropical Countries 13.5.2.1 Racial or Ethnic Differences? 13.5.3 Higher Proportion of Atypical Parkinsonism? 13.5.4 Environmental Exposures? 13.6 Conclusion References 14 Vascular Disorders 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Burden of Stroke in SSA 14.2.1 Overview 14.2.2 Epidemiology 14.2.2.1 Prevalence 14.2.2.2 Incidence 14.2.2.3 Mortality 14.2.2.4 Stroke Case-Fatality 14.2.2.5 Stroke Subtypes 14.2.3 Comments 14.3 Risk Factors 14.4 The Gaps References 15 Neuromuscular Disorders in Tropical Areas 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Infectious NMDs 15.2.1 Bacterial Infections 15.2.1.1 Leprosy 15.2.1.2 Buruli Ulcer 15.2.1.3 Tuberculosis 15.2.1.4 Brucellosis 15.2.1.5 Tropical Pyomyositis 15.2.1.6 Leptospirosis and Other Spirochetes 15.2.1.7 Rickettsiosis 15.2.1.8 Diphtheria 15.2.1.9 Botulism 15.2.1.10 Tetanus 15.2.1.11 Typhoid Fever 15.2.2 Viral Infections 15.2.2.1 Human Immunodeficiency Virus 15.2.2.2 The Neurotropic Herpes Viruses 15.2.2.3 Cytomegalovirus 15.2.2.4 Human T-lymphotropic Virus 1 15.2.2.5 The Hepatitis Viruses 15.2.2.6 Arboviruses 15.2.2.7 Poliovirus 15.2.2.8 Rabies 15.2.2.9 Rubella 15.2.2.10 Influenza 15.2.3 Parasitic and Fungal Infections 15.2.3.1 American Trypanosomiasis 15.2.3.2 Trichinellosis (or Trichinosis) 15.2.3.3 Cysticercosis 15.2.3.4 Echinococcosis 15.2.3.5 Schistosomiasis (or Bilharziasis) 15.2.3.6 Malaria 15.2.3.7 Gnathosomiasis 15.2.3.8 Angiostrongyliasis 15.2.3.9 Dracunculiasis 15.2.3.10 Infection by Haycocknema perplexum 15.2.3.11 Coenuriasis 15.2.3.12 Toxoplasmosis 15.2.3.13 Onchocerciasis 15.2.3.14 Giardiasis 15.2.3.15 Bothriocephalus Infection 15.2.3.16 Leishmaniasis 15.2.3.17 Sarcocystosis 15.2.3.18 Microsporidial Infections 15.3 Malnutrition and Micronutrient Deficiencies 15.3.1 Vitamin B1 (Thiamin) Deficiency 15.3.2 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Deficiency 15.3.3 Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Deficiency 15.3.4 Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid) Deficiency 15.3.5 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Deficiency 15.3.6 Vitamin B8 (Biotin) Deficiency 15.3.7 Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Deficiency 15.3.8 Copper Deficiency 15.3.9 Tropical Sprue 15.3.10 Tropical Ataxic Neuropathy 15.4 Toxic Causes 15.4.1 NMDs Caused by Envenimation 15.4.1.1 Spider Bites 15.4.1.2 Scorpion Stings 15.4.1.3 Snake Bites 15.4.1.4 Marine Poisoning 15.4.1.5 Plant Sources and Other Animal Poisons 15.5 Other Acquired NMDs 15.5.1 Diabetes Mellitus 15.5.2 Immune-Mediated NMDs 15.5.2.1 Guillain–Barré Syndrome 15.5.2.2 CIDP 15.5.2.3 Myasthenia Gravis 15.5.3 Systemic Diseases 15.6 Hereditary NMDs 15.7 Idiopathic Neuropathies Abbreviations References 16 Headaches in Tropical Areas 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Epidemiological Aspects 16.3 Impact 16.4 Clinical Aspects 16.4.1 Migraine 16.4.2 Tension Headaches 16.4.3 Secondary Headache 16.4.3.1 Headache of Ophthalmological Origin 16.4.3.2 Headache in Intracranial Infection 16.4.3.3 Work-Related Headache 16.5 Conclusion References 17 Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Addictions 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Psychiatry and Mental Health in SSA 17.2.1 Epidemiology in Mental Health in SSA 17.2.1.1 Prevalence of Mental Illness and Associated Factors 17.2.1.2 Women’s Mental Health 17.2.1.3 Childhood Mental Health 17.2.1.4 Mental Health in Prisons 17.2.1.5 Consequences of Mental-Health Diseases and Mental Quality of Life 17.2.2 Support for Mental Illness and Promotion of Mental Health 17.2.2.1 Obstacles 17.2.2.2 Solutions for More Effectively Dealing With Mental Health in SSA 17.3 Addictions in SSA 17.3.1 History and Generality of Addictions in SSA 17.3.1.1 The Local Production of Cannabis 17.3.1.2 Local Production of Heroin and Cocaine 17.3.2 Epidemiology of Addictions in SSA 17.3.2.1 Prevalence of Addictions in SSA 17.3.2.1.1 Prevalence of Addiction to Intravenous Drug Misuse in SSA 17.3.2.1.2 Drug Abuse and HIV 17.3.2.2 Specificity of the Addictions in Women in SSA 17.3.2.3 Prevalence of Addictions in Childhood and Adolescents in SSA 17.3.2.4 Factors Associated With Addictions in SSA 17.3.2.4.1 Factors Associated With Smoking in SSA 17.3.2.4.2 Factors Associated With Alcoholism in SSA 17.3.2.4.3 Factors Associated With Intravenous Drug Injection in SSA 17.3.2.4.4 Factors Associated With Addiction in Teenagers in SSA 17.3.2.4.5 Factors Associated With Addictions in Women SSA 17.3.2.5 The Consequences of Addictions in SSA 17.3.2.6 The Causes of Addiction in SSA 17.3.2.6.1 Causes of Alcoholism in SSA 17.3.2.6.2 Causes of the Tobacco Epidemic in Developing Countries 17.3.2.6.3 Causes of Illicit Drug Addiction in SSA 17.3.2.6.4 Causes of Trafficking of Drugs in SSA 17.3.3 Solutions to Addiction in SSA 17.3.3.1 Fighting Tobacco Control in SSA 17.3.3.2 The Fight Against Alcoholism 17.3.3.3 The Fight Against Drug Abuse and Trafficking of Psychotropic Drugs 17.4 Conclusion References Further Reading 18 Neurological Syndromes or Diseases Caused by Parasites in Tropical Areas 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Cysticercosis 18.3 American Trypanosomiasis 18.4 African Trypanosomiasis 18.5 Malaria 18.6 Schistosomiasis 18.7 Toxoplasmosis 18.8 Gnathostomiasis 18.9 Angiostrongyliasis 18.10 Nodding Syndrome and Onchocerciasis 18.11 Neurologic Infections by Free-Living Amebae 18.12 Future Directions References 19 Bacterial Diseases of the Nervous System 19.1 Introduction 19.2 BM/Encephalitis/Cerebral Abscess (Mycobacteria Excluded) 19.2.1 Neonatal Meningitis 19.2.1.1 Epidemiology and Physiopathology 19.2.1.2 Diagnosis 19.2.1.3 Treatment 19.2.2 BM in Children and Adults 19.2.2.1 Epidemiology 19.2.2.1.1 Meningococcal Disease 19.2.2.1.2 Streptococcus pneumoniae 19.2.2.1.3 Other Pathogens 19.2.2.2 Pathophysiology 19.2.2.3 Clinical Features 19.2.2.4 Diagnosis 19.2.2.5 Treatment 19.2.2.6 Outcome 19.2.2.7 Prevention 19.2.2.7.1 Chemoprophylaxis 19.2.2.7.2 Vaccination 19.2.3 Cerebral Abscess 19.3 Mycobacterial Infections 19.3.1 TB of the CNS 19.3.1.1 Epidemiology 19.3.1.2 Pathophysiology 19.3.1.3 Clinical Features 19.3.1.4 Diagnosis 19.3.1.5 Treatment 19.3.1.6 Outcome 19.3.1.7 Prevention 19.3.1.7.1 Chemoprophylaxis 19.3.1.7.2 Vaccination: Bacille Calmette–Guérin 19.3.2 Leprosy 19.3.2.1 Epidemiology 19.3.2.2 Pathophysiology 19.3.2.3 Clinical Features 19.3.2.4 Diagnosis 19.3.2.5 Treatment 19.3.2.6 Outcome 19.3.2.7 Prevention 19.4 Other Bacterial Infections Involving the CNS 19.4.1 Neurosyphilis 19.4.1.1 Epidemiology 19.4.1.2 Physiopathology/Microbiology 19.4.1.3 Clinical Features 19.4.1.4 Diagnosis 19.4.1.5 Treatment 19.4.1.6 Outcome 19.4.1.7 Prevention136 19.4.2 Zoonotic BM 19.4.2.1 Leptospirosis, Brucellosis and Q Fever 19.4.2.1.1 Epidemiology 19.4.2.1.2 Physiopathology 19.4.2.1.3 Clinical Features 19.4.2.1.4 Diagnosis 19.4.2.1.5 Treatment 19.4.2.1.6 Outcome 19.4.2.1.7 Prevention 19.4.2.2 Rickettsiosis 19.4.2.3 Relapsing Fever 19.4.3 Mycoplasma pneumoniae 19.4.3.1 Physiopathology162,164 and Diagnosis 19.4.3.2 Treatment 19.4.4 Tetanus 19.4.4.1 Physiopathology 19.4.4.2 Diagnosis 19.4.4.3 Mortality 19.4.4.4 Outcome in Survivors 19.4.4.5 Treatment 19.4.4.6 Prevention References 20 Viral Diseases 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Herpes Simplex 1 and 2 20.2.1 Epidemiology 20.2.2 CNS Diseases Caused by HSV 20.2.3 Pathogenesis 20.2.4 Diagnosis 20.2.5 Prevention and Treatment 20.3 Varicella Zoster Virus 20.3.1 Epidemiology 20.3.2 Pathogenesis 20.3.3 Diagnosis 20.3.4 Treatment 20.3.5 Prevention 20.4 Cytomegalovirus 20.4.1 Epidemiology 20.4.2 Pathogenesis 20.4.3 Diagnosis 20.4.4 Treatment and Prevention 20.5 Epstein–Barr Virus 20.5.1 Epidemiology 20.5.2 Pathogenesis 20.5.3 Diagnosis 20.5.4 Treatment and Prevention 20.6 Human Herpes Virus 6 20.7 Enterovirus 20.8 Poliomyelitis 20.8.1 Epidemiology 20.8.2 Pathogenesis 20.8.3 Diagnosis 20.8.4 Treatment and Prevention 20.9 Non-polio Enteroviruses 20.9.1 Epidemiology and Clinical Features 20.9.2 Diagnosis 20.9.3 Treatment and Prevention 20.10 Paramyxoviruses (Measles, Mumps, and Nipah Viruses) 20.10.1 Measles 20.10.1.1 Epidemiology 20.10.1.2 Diagnosis 20.10.1.3 Prevention and Treatment 20.10.2 Mumps 20.10.2.1 Epidemiology 20.10.2.2 Pathogenesis 20.10.2.3 Diagnosis 20.10.2.4 Prevention and Treatment 20.10.3 Nipah Virus 20.10.3.1 Epidemiology 20.10.3.2 Pathogenesis and Pathology 20.10.3.3 Diagnosis 20.10.3.4 Prevention and Treatment 20.11 Retrovirus 20.11.1 Human T–Lymphotropic Virus 20.11.1.1 Epidemiology 20.11.1.2 Pathogenesis 20.11.1.3 Diagnosis 20.11.1.4 Prevention and Treatment 20.11.2 Human Immunodeficiency Virus 20.11.2.1 Epidemiology 20.11.2.2 Pathogenesis 20.11.2.3 Diagnosis 20.11.2.4 Prevention and Treatment 20.12 Polyomavirus and Progressive Multifocal Leucoencephalopathy 20.12.1 Epidemiology 20.12.2 Pathogenesis 20.12.3 Diagnosis 20.12.4 Prevention and Treatment 20.13 Rhabdoviridae/Lyssavirus 20.13.1 Epidemiology 20.13.2 Pathogenesis 20.13.3 Diagnosis 20.13.4 Prevention and Treatment 20.14 Arboviruses 20.14.1 Bunyaviridae Family 20.14.2 Flaviviridae Family, Genus Flavivirus 20.14.2.1 Epidemiology 20.14.2.2 Clinical Features 20.14.2.3 Diagnosis 20.14.2.4 Prevention and Treatment 20.15 Togaviridae/Rubivirus 20.15.1 Epidemiology 20.15.2 Pathogenesis 20.15.3 Diagnosis 20.15.4 Prevention 20.16 Poxviruses/Smallpox and Vaccinia 20.16.1 Epidemiology 20.16.2 Prevention and Safety of the Vaccine References Further Reading 21 Other Diseases: Traumatic Brain Injuries, Tumors, and Multiple Sclerosis 21.1 Traumatic Brain Injuries 21.1.1 Frequency 21.1.2 Distribution by Age and Sex 21.1.3 The Circumstances of Occurrence 21.1.4 Morbidity and Mortality 21.2 Tumors 21.2.1 PBT Risk Factors 21.2.1.1 Endogenous Factors 21.2.1.1.1 Age and Sex 21.2.1.1.2 Genetic Factors 21.2.1.1.3 Allergic Conditions 21.2.1.1.4 Anthropometric Factors 21.2.1.2 Exogenous Factors 21.2.1.2.1 Ionizing Radiations 21.2.1.2.2 Magnetic Fields 21.2.1.2.3 Viral Infections 21.2.1.2.4 Nitrates 21.2.2 Frequency 21.2.3 Breakdown by Location and Nature of Tumors 21.3 Multiple Sclerosis References Glossary Index Back Cover