Theory and Practice of Aircraft Performance

Description

Textbook introducing the fundamentals of aircraft performance using industry standards and examples: bridging the gap between academia and industry Provides an extensive and detailed treatment of all segments of mission profile and overall aircraft performance Considers operating costs, safety, environmental and related systems issues Includes worked examples relating to current aircraft (Learjet 45, Tucano Turboprop Trainer, Advanced Jet Trainer and Airbus A320 types of aircraft) Suitable as a textbook for aircraft performance courses Title Page Copyright Page Contents Preface Series Preface Road Map of the Book Acknowledgements Nomenclature Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Overview 1.2 Brief Historical Background 1.2.1 Flight in Mythology 1.2.2 Fifteenth to Nineteenth Centuries 1.2.3 From 1900 to World War I (1914) 1.2.4 World War I (1914–1918) 1.2.5 The Inter-War Period: the Golden Age (1918–1939) 1.2.6 World War II (1939–1945) 1.2.7 Post World War II 1.3 Current Aircraft Design Status 1.3.1 Current Civil Aircraft Trends 1.3.2 Current Military Aircraft Trends 1.4 Future Trends 1.4.1 Trends in Civil Aircraft 1.4.2 Trends in Military Aircraft 1.4.3 Forces and Drivers 1.5 Airworthiness Requirements 1.6 Current Aircraft Performance Analyses Levels 1.7 Market Survey 1.8 Typical Design Process 1.8.1 Four Phases of Aircraft Design 1.9 Classroom Learning Process 1.10 Cost Implications 1.11 Units and Dimensions 1.12 Use of Semi‐empirical Relations and Graphs 1.13 How Do Aircraft Fly? 1.13.1 Classification of Flight Mechanics 1.14 Anatomy of Aircraft 1.14.1 Comparison between Civil and Military Design Requirements 1.15 Aircraft Motion and Forces 1.15.1 Motion – Kinematics 1.15.2 Forces – Kinetics 1.15.3 Aerodynamic Parameters – Lift, Drag and Pitching Moment 1.15.4 Basic Controls – Sign Convention References Chapter 2 Aerodynamic and Aircraft Design Considerations 2.1 Overview 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Atmosphere 2.3.1 Hydrostatic Equations and Standard Atmosphere 2.3.2 Non-standard/Off-standard Atmosphere 2.3.3 Altitude Definitions – Density Altitude (Off‐standard) 2.3.4 Humidity Effects 2.3.5 Greenhouse Gases Effect 2.4 Airflow Behaviour: Laminar and Turbulent 2.4.1 Flow Past an Aerofoil 2.5 Aerofoil 2.5.1 Subsonic Aerofoil 2.5.2 Supersonic Aerofoil 2.6 Generation of Lift 2.6.1 Centre of Pressure and Aerodynamic Centre 2.6.2 Relation between Centre of Pressure and Aerodynamic Centre 2.7 Types of Stall 2.7.1 Buffet 2.8 Comparison of Three NACA Aerofoils 2.9 High-Lift Devices 2.10 Transonic Effects – Area Rule 2.10.1 Compressibility Correction 2.11 Wing Aerodynamics 2.11.1 Induced Drag and Total Aircraft Drag 2.12 Aspect Ratio Correction of 2D-Aerofoil Characteristics for 3D-Finite Wing 2.13 Wing Definitions 2.13.1 Planform Area, SW 2.13.2 Wing Aspect Ratio 2.13.3 Wing-Sweep Angle 2.13.4 Wing Root (croot) and Tip (ctip) Chords 2.13.5 Wing-Taper Ratio, λ 2.13.6 Wing Twist 2.13.7 High/Low Wing 2.13.8 Dihedral/Anhedral Angles 2.14 Mean Aerodynamic Chord 2.15 Compressibility Effect: Wing Sweep 2.16 Wing-Stall Pattern and Wing Twist 2.17 Influence of Wing Area and Span on Aerodynamics 2.17.1 The Square-Cube Law 2.17.2 Aircraft Wetted Area (AW) versus Wing Planform Area (SW) 2.17.3 Additional Wing Surface Vortex Lift – Strake/Canard 2.17.4 Additional Surfaces on Wing – Flaps/Slats and High‐Lift Devices 2.17.5 Other Additional Surfaces on Wing 2.18 Empennage 2.18.1 Tail-arm 2.18.2 Horizontal Tail (H-Tail) 2.18.3 Vertical Tail (V-Tail) 2.18.4 Tail-Volume Coefficients 2.19 Fuselage 2.19.1 Fuselage Axis/Zero-Reference Plane 2.19.2 Fuselage Length, Lfus 2.19.3 Fineness Ratio, FR 2.19.4 Fuselage Upsweep Angle 2.19.5 Fuselage Closure Angle 2.19.6 Front Fuselage Closure Length, Lf 2.19.7 Aft Fuselage Closure Length, La 2.19.8 Mid-Fuselage Constant Cross-Section Length, Lm 2.19.9 Fuselage Height, H 2.19.10 Fuselage Width, W 2.19.11 Average Diameter, Dave 2.20 Nacelle and Intake 2.20.1 Large Commercial/Military Logistic and Old Bombers Nacelle Group 2.20.2 Small Civil Aircraft Nacelle Position 2.20.3 Intake/Nacelle Group (Military Aircraft) 2.20.4 Futuristic Aircraft Nacelle Positions 2.21 Speed Brakes and Dive Brakes References Chapter 3 Air Data Measuring Instruments, Systems and Parameters 3.1 Overview 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Aircraft Speed 3.3.1 Definitions Related to Aircraft Velocity 3.3.2 Theory Related to Computing Aircraft Velocity 3.3.3 Aircraft Speed in Flight Deck Instruments 3.3.4 Atmosphere with Wind Speed (Non-zero Wind) 3.3.5 Calibrated Airspeed 3.3.6 Compressibility Correction (ΔVc ) 3.3.7 Other Position Error Corrections 3.4 Air Data Instruments 3.4.1 Altitude Measurement – Altimeter 3.4.2 Airspeed Measuring Instrument – Pitot-Static Tube 3.4.3 Angle-of-Attack Probe 3.4.4 Vertical Speed Indicator 3.4.5 Temperature Measurement 3.4.6 Turn-Slip Indicator 3.5 Aircraft Flight-Deck (Cockpit) Layout 3.5.1 Multifunctional Displays and Electronic Flight Information Systems 3.5.2 Combat Aircraft Flight Deck 3.5.3 Head-Up Display (HUD) 3.6 Aircraft Mass (Weights) and Centre of Gravity 3.6.1 Aircraft Mass (Weights) Breakdown 3.6.2 Desirable CG Position 3.6.3 Weights Summary – Civil Aircraft 3.6.4 CG Determination – Civil Aircraft 3.6.5 Bizjet Aircraft CG Location – Classroom Example 3.6.6 Weights Summary – Military Aircraft 3.6.7 CG Determination – Military Aircraft 3.6.8 Classroom Worked Example – Military AJT CG Location 3.7 Noise Emissions 3.7.1 Airworthiness Requirements 3.7.2 Summary 3.8 Engine-Exhaust Emissions 3.9 Aircraft Systems 3.9.1 Aircraft Control System 3.9.2 ECS: Cabin Pressurization and Air‐Conditioning 3.9.3 Oxygen Supply 3.9.4 Anti-icing, De-icing, Defogging and Rain Removal System 3.10 Low Observable (LO) Aircraft Configuration 3.10.1 Heat Signature 3.10.2 Radar Signature References Chapter 4 Equations of Motion for a Flat Stationary Earth 4.1 Overview 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Definitions of Frames of Reference (Flat Stationary E arth) and Nomenclature Used 4.3.1 Notation and Symbols Used in this Chapter 4.4 Eulerian Angles 4.4.1 Transformation of Eulerian Angles 4.5 Simplified Equations of Motion for a Flat Stationary Earth 4.5.1 Important Aerodynamic Angles 4.5.2 In Pitch Plane (Vertical XZ Plane) 4.5.3 In Yaw Plane (Horizontal Plane) – Coordinated Turn 4.5.4 In Pitch-Yaw Plane – Coordinated Climb-Turn (Helical Trajectory) 4.5.5 Discussion on Turn Reference Chapter 5 Aircraft Load 5.1 Overview 5.2 Introduction 5.2.1 Buffet 5.2.2 Flutter 5.3 Flight Manoeuvres 5.3.1 Pitch Plane (X-Z) Manoeuvre 5.3.2 Roll Plane (Y-Z) Manoeuvre 5.3.3 Yaw Plane (Y-X) Manoeuvre 5.4 Aircraft Loads 5.5 Theory and Definitions 5.5.1 Load Factor, n 5.6 Limits – Loads and Speeds 5.6.1 Maximum Limit of Load Factor 5.7 V-n Diagram 5.7.1 Speed Limits 5.7.2 Extreme Points of the V-n Diagram 5.7.3 Low Speed Limit 5.7.4 Manoeuvre Envelope Construction 5.7.5 High Speed Limit 5.8 Gust Envelope 5.8.1 Gust Load Equations 5.8.2 Gust Envelope Construction Reference Chapter 6 Stability Considerations Affecting Aircraft Performance 6.1 Overview 6.2 Introduction 6.3 Static and Dynamic Stability 6.3.1 Longitudinal Stability – Pitch Plane (Pitch Moment, M ) 6.3.2 Directional Stability – Yaw Plane (Yaw Moment, N) 6.3.3 Lateral Stability – Roll Plane (Roll Moment, L) 6.4 Theory 6.4.1 Pitch Plane 6.4.2 Yaw Plane 6.4.3 Roll Plane 6.5 Current Statistical Trends for Horizontal and Vertical Tail Coefficients 6.6 Inherent Aircraft Motions as Characteristics of Design 6.6.1 Short-Period Oscillation and Phugoid Motion 6.6.2 Directional/Lateral Modes of Motion 6.7 Spinning 6.8 Summary of Design Considerations for Stability 6.8.1 Civil Aircraft 6.8.2 Military Aircraft – Non-linear Effects 6.8.3 Active Control Technology (ACT) – Fly-by-Wire References Chapter 7 Aircraft Power Plant and Integration 7.1 Overview 7.2 Background 7.3 Definitions 7.4 Air-Breathing Aircraft Engine Types 7.4.1 Simple Straight-through Turbojets 7.4.2 Turbofan – Bypass Engine 7.4.3 Afterburner Jet Engines 7.4.4 Turboprop Engines 7.4.5 Piston Engines 7.5 Simplified Representation of Gas Turbine (Brayton/Joule) Cycle 7.6 Formulation/Theory – Isentropic Case 7.6.1 Simple Straight-through Turbojets 7.6.2 Bypass Turbofan Engines 7.6.3 Afterburner Jet Engines 7.6.4 Turboprop Engines 7.7 Engine Integration to Aircraft – Installation Effects 7.7.1 Subsonic Civil Aircraft Nacelle and Engine Installation 7.7.2 Turboprop Integration to Aircraft 7.7.3 Combat Aircraft Engine Installation 7.8 Intake/Nozzle Design 7.8.1 Civil Aircraft Intake Design 7.8.2 Military Aircraft Intake Design 7.9 Exhaust Nozzle and Thrust Reverser 7.9.1 Civil Aircraft Exhaust Nozzles 7.9.2 Military Aircraft TR Application and Exhaust Nozzles 7.10 Propeller 7.10.1 Propeller-Related Definitions 7.10.2 Propeller Theory 7.10.3 Propeller Performance – Practical Engineering Applications 7.10.4 Propeller Performance – Three- to Four-Bladed References Chapter 8 Aircraft Power Plant Performance 8.1 Overview 8.2 Introduction 8.2.1 Engine Performance Ratings 8.2.2 Turbofan Engine Parameters 8.3 Uninstalled Turbofan Engine Performance Data – Civil Aircraft 8.3.1 Turbofans with BPR around 4 8.3.2 Turbofans with BPR around 5–6 8.4 Uninstalled Turbofan Engine Performance Data – Military Aircraft 8.5 Uninstalled Turboprop Engine Performance Data 8.5.1 Typical Turboprop Performance 8.6 Installed Engine Performance Data of Matched Engines to Coursework Aircraft 8.6.1 Turbofan Engine (Smaller Engines for Bizjets – BPR ≈ 4) 8.6.2 Turbofans with BPR around 5–6 (Larger Jets) 8.6.3 Military Turbofan (Very Low BPR) 8.7 Installed Turboprop Performance Data 8.7.1 Typical Turboprop Performance 8.7.2 Propeller Performance – Worked Example 8.8 Piston Engine 8.9 Engine Performance Grid 8.9.1 Installed Maximum Climb Rating (TFE 731-20 Class Turbofan) 8.9.2 Maximum Cruise Rating (TFE731-20 Class Turbofan) 8.10 Some Turbofan Data Reference Chapter 9 Aircraft Drag 9.1 Overview 9.2 Introduction 9.3 Parasite Drag Definition 9.4 Aircraft Drag Breakdown (Subsonic) 9.5 Aircraft Drag Formulation 9.6 Aircraft Drag Estimation Methodology 9.7 Minimum Parasite Drag Estimation Methodology 9.7.1 Geometric Parameters, Reynolds Number and Basic CF Determination 9.7.2 Computation of Wetted Area 9.7.3 Stepwise Approach to Computing Minimum Parasite Drag 9.8 Semi-Empirical Relations to Estimate Aircraft Component Parasite Drag 9.8.1 Fuselage 9.8.2 Wing, Empennage, Pylons and Winglets 9.8.3 Nacelle Drag 9.8.4 Excrescence Drag 9.8.5 Miscellaneous Parasite Drags 9.9 Notes on Excrescence Drag Resulting from Surface Imperfections 9.10 Minimum Parasite Drag 9.11 ΔCDp Estimation 9.12 Subsonic Wave Drag 9.13 Total Aircraft Drag 9.14 Low-Speed Aircraft Drag at Takeoff and Landing 9.14.1 High-Lift Device Drag 9.14.2 Dive Brakes and Spoilers Drag 9.14.3 Undercarriage Drag 9.14.4 One-Engine Inoperative Drag 9.15 Propeller-Driven Aircraft Drag 9.16 Military Aircraft Drag 9.17 Supersonic Drag 9.18 Coursework Example – Civil Bizjet Aircraft 9.18.1 Geometric and Performance Data 9.18.2 Computation of Wetted Areas, Re and Basic CF 9.18.3 Computation of 3D and Other Effects 9.18.4 Summary of Parasite Drag 9.18.5 ΔCDp Estimation 9.18.6 Induced Drag 9.18.7 Total Aircraft Drag at LRC 9.19 Classroom Example – Subsonic Military Aircraft (Advanced Jet Trainer) 9.19.1 AJT Specifications 9.19.2 CAS Variant Specifications 9.19.3 Weights 9.19.4 AJT Details 9.20 Classroom Example – Turboprop Trainer 9.20.1 TPT Specification 9.20.2 TPT Details 9.20.3 Component Parasite Drag Estimation 9.21 Classroom Example – Supersonic Military Aircraft 9.21.1 Geometric and Performance Data for the Vigilante RA-C5 Aircraft 9.21.2 Computation of Wetted Areas, Re and Basic CF 9.21.3 Computation of 3D and Other Effects to Estimate Component CDpmin 9.21.4 Summary of Parasite Drag 9.21.5 ΔCDp Estimation 9.21.6 Induced Drag 9.21.7 Supersonic Drag Estimation 9.21.8 Total Aircraft Drag 9.22 Drag Comparison 9.23 Some Concluding Remarks and Reference Figures References Chapter 10 Fundamentals of Mission Profile, Drag Polar and Aeroplane Grid 10.1 Overview 10.2 Introduction 10.2.1 Evolution in Aircraft Performance Capabilities 10.2.2 Levels of Aircraft Performance Analyses 10.3 Civil Aircraft Mission (Payload–Range) 10.3.1 Civil Aircraft Classification and Mission Segments 10.4 Military Aircraft Mission 10.4.1 Military Aircraft Performance Segments 10.5 Aircraft Flight Envelope 10.6 Understanding Drag Polar 10.6.1 Actual Drag Polar 10.6.2 Parabolic Drag Polar 10.6.3 Comparison between Actual and Parabolic Drag Polar 10.7 Properties of Parabolic Drag Polar 10.7.1 The Maximum and Minimum Conditions Applicable to Parabolic Drag Polar 10.7.2 Propeller-Driven Aircraft 10.8 Classwork Examples of Parabolic Drag Polar 10.8.1 Bizjet Market Specifications 10.8.2 Turboprop Trainer Specifications 10.8.3 Advanced Jet Trainer Specifications 10.8.4 Comparison of Drag Polars 10.9 Bizjet Actual Drag Polar 10.9.1 Comparing Actual with Parabolic Drag Polar 10.9.2 (Lift/Drag) and (Mach × Lift/Drag) Ratios 10.9.3 Velocity at Minimum (D/V) 10.9.4 (Lift/Drag)max, CL @ (L/D)max and VDmin 10.9.5 Turboprop Trainer (TPT) Example – Parabolic Drag Polar 10.9.6 TPT (Lift/Drag)max, CL@(L/D)max and VDmin 10.9.7 TPT (ESHP)min_reqd and VPmin 10.9.8 Summary for TPT 10.10 Aircraft and Engine Grid 10.10.1 Aircraft and Engine Grid (Jet Aircraft) 10.10.2 Classwork Example – Bizjet Aircraft and Engine Grid 10.10.3 Aircraft and Engine Grid (Turboprop Trainer) References Chapter 11 Takeoff and Landing 11.1 Overview 11.2 Introduction 11.3 Airfield Definitions 11.3.1 Stopway (SWY) and Clearway (CWY) 11.3.2 Available Airfield Definitions 11.3.3 Actual Field Length Definitions 11.4 Generalized Takeoff Equations of Motion 11.4.1 Ground Run Distance 11.4.2 Time Taken for the Ground Run SG 11.4.3 Flare Distance and Time Taken from VR to V2 11.4.4 Ground Effect 11.5 Friction – Wheel Rolling and Braking Friction Coefficients 11.6 Civil Transport Aircraft Takeoff 11.6.1 Civil Aircraft Takeoff Segments 11.6.2 Balanced Field Length (BFL) – Civil Aircraft 11.6.3 Flare to 35 ft Height (Average Speed Method) 11.7 Worked Example – Bizjet 11.7.1 All-Engine Takeoff 11.7.2 Flare from VR to V2 11.7.3 Balanced Field Takeoff – One Engine Inoperative 11.8 Takeoff Presentation 11.8.1 Weight, Altitude and Temperature Limits 11.9 Military Aircraft Takeoff 11.10 Checking Takeoff Field Length (AJT) 11.10.1 AJT Aircraft and Aerodynamic Data 11.10.2 Takeoff with 8° Flap 11.11 Civil Transport Aircraft Landing 11.11.1 Airfield Definitions 11.11.2 Landing Performance Equations 11.11.3 Landing Field Length for the Bizjet 11.11.4 Landing Field Length for the AJT 11.12 Landing Presentation 11.13 Approach Climb and Landing Climb 11.14 Fuel Jettisoning References Chapter 12 Climb and Descent Performance 12.1 Overview 12.2 Introduction 12.2.1 Cabin Pressurization 12.2.2 Aircraft Ceiling 12.3 Climb Performance 12.3.1 Climb Performance Equations of Motion 12.3.2 Accelerated Climb 12.3.3 Constant EAS Climb 12.3.4 Constant Mach Climb 12.3.5 Unaccelerated Climb 12.4 Other Ways to Climb (Point Performance) – Civil Aircraft 12.4.1 Maximum Rate of Climb and Maximum Climb Gradient 12.4.2 Steepest Climb 12.4.3 Economic Climb at Constant EAS 12.4.4 Discussion on Climb Performance 12.5 Classwork Example – Climb Performance (Bizjet) 12.5.1 Takeoff Segments Climb Performance (Bizjet) 12.5.2 En-Route Climb Performance (Bizjet) 12.5.3 Bizjet Climb Schedule 12.6 Hodograph Plot 12.6.1 Aircraft Ceiling 12.7 Worked Example – Bizjet 12.7.1 Bizjet Climb Rate at Normal Climb Speed Schedule 12.7.2 Rate of Climb Performance versus Altitude 12.7.3 Bizjet Ceiling 12.8 Integrated Climb Performance – Computational Methodology 12.8.1 Worked Example – Initial En-Route Rate of Climb (Bizjet) 12.8.2 Integrated Climb Performance (Bizjet) 12.8.3 Turboprop Trainer Aircraft (TPT) 12.9 Specific Excess Power (SEP) – High-Energy Climb 12.9.1 Specific Excess Power Characteristics 12.9.2 Worked Example of SEP Characteristics (Bizjet) 12.9.3 Example of AJT 12.9.4 Supersonic Aircraft 12.10 Descent Performance 12.10.1 Glide 12.10.2 Descent Properties 12.10.3 Selection of Descent Speed 12.11 Worked Example – Descent Performance (Bizjet) 12.11.1 Limitation of Maximum Descent Rate References Chapter 13 Cruise Performance and Endurance 13.1 Overview 13.2 Introduction 13.2.1 Definitions 13.3: Equations of Motion for the Cruise Segment 13.4 Cruise Equations 13.4.1 Propeller-Driven Aircraft Cruise Equations 13.4.2 Jet Engine Aircraft Cruise Equations 13.5 Specific Range 13.6 Worked Example (Bizjet) 13.6.1 Aircraft and Engine Grid at Cruise Rating 13.6.2 Specific Range Using Actual Drag Polar 13.6.3 Specific Range and Range Factor 13.7 Endurance Equations 13.7.1 Propeller-Driven (Turboprop) Aircraft 13.7.2 Turbofan Powered Aircraft 13.8 Options for Cruise Segment (Turbofan Only) 13.9 Initial Maximum Cruise Speed (Bizjet) 13.10 Worked Example of AJT – Military Aircraft 13.10.1 To Compute the AJT Fuel Requirement 13.10.2 To Check Maximum Speed References Chapter 14 Aircraft Mission Profile 14.1 Overview 14.2 Introduction 14.3 Payload-Range Capability 14.3.1 Reserve Fuel 14.4 The Bizjet Payload-Range Capability 14.4.1 Long-Range Cruise (LRC) at Constant Altitude 14.4.2 High-Speed Cruise (HSC) at Constant Altitude and Speed 14.4.3 Discussion on Cruise Segment 14.5 Endurance (Bizjet) 14.6 Effect of Wind on Aircraft Mission Performance 14.7 Engine Inoperative Situation at Climb and Cruise – Drift-Down Procedure 14.7.1 Engine Inoperative Situation at Climb 14.7.2 Engine Inoperative Situation at Cruise (Figure 14.5) 14.7.3 Point of No-Return and Equal Time Point 14.7.4 Engine Data 14.7.5 Drift-Down in Cruise 14.8 Military Missions 14.8.1 Military Training Mission Profile – Advanced Jet Trainer (AJT) 14.9 Flight Planning by the Operators References Chapter 15 Manoeuvre Performance 15.1 Overview 15.2 Introduction 15.3 Aircraft Turn 15.3.1 In Horizontal (Yaw) Plane – Sustained Coordinated Turn 15.3.2 Maximum Conditions for Turn in Horizontal Plane 15.3.3 Minimum Radius of Turn in Horizontal Plane 15.3.4 Turning in Vertical (Pitch) Plane 15.3.5 In Pitch-Yaw Plane – Climbing Turn in Helical Path 15.4 Classwork Example – AJT 15.5 Aerobatics Manoeuvre 15.5.1 Lazy-8 in Horizontal Plane 15.5.2 Chandelle 15.5.3 Slow Roll 15.5.4 Hesitation Roll 15.5.5 Barrel Roll 15.5.6 Loop in Vertical Plane 15.5.7 Immelmann – Roll at the Top in the Vertical Plane 15.5.8 Stall Turn in Vertical Plane 15.5.9 Cuban-Eight in Vertical Plane 15.5.10 Pugachev’s Cobra Movement 15.6 Combat Manoeuvre 15.6.1 Basic Fighter Manoeuvre 15.7 Discussion on Turn References Chapter 16 Aircraft Sizing and Engine Matching 16.1 Overview 16.2 Introduction 16.3 Theory 16.3.1 Sizing for Takeoff Field Length – Two Engines 16.3.2 Sizing for the Initial Rate of Climb (All Engines Operating) 16.3.3 Sizing to Meet Initial Cruise 16.3.4 Sizing for Landing Distance 16.4 Coursework Exercises: Civil Aircraft Design (Bizjet) 16.4.1 Takeoff 16.4.2 Initial Climb 16.4.3 Cruise 16.4.4 Landing 16.5 Sizing Analysis: Civil Aircraft (Bizjet) 16.5.1 Variants in the Family of Aircraft Design 16.5.2 Example: Civil Aircraft 16.6 Classroom Exercise – Military Aircraft (AJT) 16.6.1 Takeoff 16.6.2 Initial Climb 16.6.3 Cruise 16.6.4 Landing 16.6.5 Sizing for Turn Requirement of 4 g at Sea-Level 16.7 Sizing Analysis – Military Aircraft 16.7.1 Single Seat Variants 16.8 Aircraft Sizing Studies and Sensitivity Analyses 16.8.1 Civil Aircraft Sizing Studies 16.8.2 Military Aircraft Sizing Studies 16.9 Discussion 16.9.1 The AJT References Chapter 17 Operating Costs 17.1 Overview 17.2 Introduction 17.3 Aircraft Cost and Operational Cost 17.3.1 Manufacturing Cost 17.3.2 Operating Cost 17.4 Aircraft Direct Operating Cost (DOC) 17.4.1 Formulation to Estimate DOC 17.4.2 Worked Example of DOC – Bizjet 17.5 Aircraft Performance Management (APM) 17.5.1 Methodology 17.5.2 Discussion – the Broader Issues References Chapter 18 Miscellaneous Considerations 18.1 Overview 18.2 Introduction 18.3 History of the FAA 18.3.1 Code of Federal Regulations 18.3.2 The Role of Regulation 18.4 Flight Test 18.5 Contribution of the Ground Effect on Takeoff 18.6 Flying in Adverse Environments 18.6.1 Adverse Environment as Loss of Visibility 18.6.2 Adverse Environment Due to Aerodynamic and Stability/Control Degradation 18.7 Bird Strikes 18.8 Military Aircraft Flying Hazards and Survivability 18.9 Relevant Civil Aircraft Statistics 18.9.1 Maximum Takeoff Mass versus Operational Empty Mass 18.9.2 MTOM versus Fuel Load, Mf 18.9.3 MTOM versus Wing Area, SW 18.9.4 MTOM versus Engine Power 18.9.5 Empennage Area versus Wing Area 18.9.6 Wing Loading versus Aircraft Span 18.10 Extended Twin-Engine Operation (ETOP) 18.11 Flight and Human Physiology References Appendex A Conversions Appendex B International Standard Atmosphere Table Appendex C Fundamental Equations C.1 Kinetics C.2 Thermodynamics C.3 Aerodynamics C.3.1 Normal Shock C.3.2 Oblique Shock Appendex D Airbus 320 Class Case Study D.1 Dimensions D.2 Drag Computation D.2.1 Fuselage D.2.2 Wing D.2.3 Vertical Tail D.2.4 Horizontal Tail D.2.5 Nacelle, CFn D.2.6 Thrust Reverser Drag D.2.7 Pylon D.2.8 Roughness Effect D.2.9 Trim Drag D.2.10 Aerial and Other Protrusions D.2.11 Air-conditioning D.2.12 Aircraft Parasite Drag Build-Up Summary and CDpmin D.2.13 ΔCDp Estimation D.2.14 Induced Drag, CDi D.2.15 Total Aircraft Drag D.2.16 Engine Rating D.2.17 Weights Breakdown D.2.18 Payload-Range D.2.19 Cost Calculations Appendex E Problem Sets E.1 The Belfast (B100) E.1.1 Geometric and Performance Data E.1.2 The B100 Component Weights E.2 The AK4 E.2.1 Geometric and Performance Data E.2.2 The AK4 Component Weights E.2.3 Drag Coefficient at 5000 ft Altitude E.3 Problem Assignments E.3.1 Chapter 1 E.3.2 Chapter 2 E.3.3 Chapter 3 E.3.4 Chapters 4 and 5 E.3.5 Chapter 6 E.3.6 Chapters 7 and 8 E.3.7 Chapter 9 E.3.8 Chapter 10 E.3.9 Chapter 11 E.3.10 Chapter 12 E.3.11 Chapter 13 E.3.12 Chapter 14 E.3.13 Chapter 15 E.3.14 Chapters 16–17 Appendex F Aerofoil Data Index EULA