Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and Processing: Principles and Practices

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Cover......Page 1 Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and Processing: Principles and Practices, Fourth Edition ......Page 2 Preface to the Fourth Edition......Page 9 Disclaimer......Page 4 Dedication......Page 5 9.1 Introduction......Page 314 Appendix 2......Page 7 21 . Real-Time Optimization of Gas Processing Plants......Page 11 1.2 Natural Gas History......Page 15 1.3 Natural Gas Origin and Sources......Page 16 1.3.2 Unconventional Gas......Page 17 1.4 Natural Gas Composition and Classification......Page 18 1.5 Natural Gas Phase Behavior......Page 19 1.6.1 Chemical and Physical Properties......Page 21 1.6.1.1 Gas Specific Gravity......Page 22 1.6.1.2 Gas Compressibility Factor......Page 23 1.6.1.4 Gas Density......Page 27 1.6.1.6 Gas Viscosity......Page 28 1.6.2.1 Specific Heat......Page 29 1.7 Natural Gas Reserves......Page 30 1.8.1.2 Drilling......Page 31 1.8.1.4 Production......Page 32 1.8.2.1 Exploration......Page 34 1.8.2.4 Production......Page 35 1.8.3 Well Deliverability......Page 36 1.9 Natural Gas Gathering......Page 37 1.10.1 Pipelines......Page 38 1.10.2 Liquefied Natural Gas......Page 39 1.10.3 Compressed Natural Gas......Page 40 1.10.4 Gas-to-Liquids......Page 41 1.10.6 Gas-to-Wire......Page 42 1.10.7 Comparison Between Various Methods......Page 43 1.11 Natural Gas Processing......Page 45 1.13 Underground Gas Storage......Page 46 References......Page 47 2.2.1 Single-Component Systems......Page 50 10.2 Mercury in Natural Gas Stream......Page 356 2.2.2 Binary Systems......Page 52 20.4.1 Flow Rate......Page 620 2.2.4 Phase Envelopes of Petroleum Fluids......Page 59 2.2.5.1 Introduction: Phase Variables Versus Global Variables......Page 60 9.3.5.2 Glycol Purity......Page 61 16.3.2.3 Orifice Meters......Page 501 2.2.5.5 Gibbs Phase Rule......Page 63 2.2.5.6 Calculation Principle of a Phase Envelope......Page 64 2.2.5.7 Calculation Principle of a PT Flash......Page 65 2.3.1 Some Words About Cubic Equations of State History......Page 67 2.3.2 General Presentation of Cubic Equations of State......Page 71 24.5.2.4 Qualitative Project Risk Management......Page 778 2.3.3 Discussion About the Mixing Rules to Be Used to Model the Phase Behavior and Enthalpies of Natural Gases With Cubic Equatio .........Page 75 3.4.3.2 Drift Flux Model......Page 77 2.3.3.2.1 The Abdoul–Rauzy–Péneloux Model......Page 79 2.3.3.2.2.1 Presentation......Page 80 2.3.3.2.3 Soave's GCM......Page 82 18.8.1.7 Forced Draft......Page 568 2.3.3.4 Other Mixing Rules......Page 84 2.3.3.4.1.2 The Van der Waals One-Fluid (VdW1f) Mixing Rules......Page 85 2.3.3.4.1.3 The Wong–Sandler Mixing Rules......Page 87 2.3.3.4.2.1 The MHV-1 Mixing Rule......Page 88 2.3.3.4.2.3 The Universal Mixing Rule of Peng–Robinson and Volume-Translated Peng–Robinson Models......Page 89 2.3.4 Energetic Aspects: Estimation of Enthalpies From Cubic EoS......Page 90 2.3.4.1 Calculation of Pure-Component Enthalpies......Page 91 2.3.4.3 Practical Use of Enthalpies of Mixing and Illustration With the PPR78 Model......Page 92 2.4 Natural Gases Phase Behavior Modeling With SAFT-type EoS......Page 93 13.7.1 Fluor Propane Recovery Plant......Page 95 20.6.3 Sulfur Recovery......Page 628 7.5 Physical Solvent Processes......Page 254 8.6 Sulfur Storage and Handling......Page 100 24.7 Commissioning and Start-up......Page 102 11.8 NGL Fractionation......Page 391 References......Page 107 Index......Page 787 3.2 Multiphase Flow Terminology......Page 115 16.3.1 Quantity Meters......Page 116 3.2.5 Slip......Page 117 11.3.3 Deep Hydrocarbon Dew pointing Unit (DDP)......Page 118 3.2.9 Mixture Enthalpy......Page 119 21.2.2.7.1 Tray-to-Tray Distillation Method......Page 120 3.3.1.1.3 Stratified (Smooth and Wavy) Flow......Page 121 21.2.2.7.4 Depropanizer......Page 655 3.3.1.2 Vertical Flow Regimes......Page 122 3.3.1.2.4 Annular Flow......Page 123 9.3.6.2 Regenerator......Page 124 3.3.2 Three-Phase Flow Regimes......Page 125 22.5.3 Exergy Associated to Heat......Page 126 19.4.1 Shortcut Versus Rigorous Models......Page 584 15.5.1.5 Shutdown and Venting Systems......Page 127 3.4.1.2.1 Lockhart and Martinelli Method......Page 128 3.4.1.2.2 Beggs and Brill Method......Page 129 3.4.1.3 Mechanistic Models......Page 132 22.5.6 Definition of the Exergy Efficiency......Page 699 3.4.3 Transient Multiphase Flow......Page 133 3.4.3.1 Two Fluid Model......Page 134 3.4.4 Multiphase Gas and Condensate Flow......Page 135 18.5 Nitrogen System......Page 555 3.6 Velocity Criteria for Sizing Multiphase Pipelines......Page 138 9.7.1 Gas Treating Unit......Page 350 3.7.1 Leak Detection......Page 140 3.7.3 Pigging......Page 141 References......Page 355 3.8.1 Gas Hydrates......Page 143 3.8.1.1 Hydrate Locus for Natural Gas Components......Page 144 3.8.1.2.1 K-Factor Method......Page 145 3.8.1.2.3 Gas Gravity Method......Page 148 3.8.1.2.4 Commercial Software Programs......Page 150 3.8.1.3 Hydrate Prevention Techniques......Page 152 3.8.1.3.2.1 Types of Inhibitors......Page 153 3.8.1.3.2.2 Prediction of Inhibitor Requirements......Page 156 3.8.1.3.2.3 Design of Injection Systems......Page 157 3.8.2 Corrosion......Page 158 3.8.2.1 Choice of Corrosion-Resistant Metals......Page 159 20.6.5.2 Refrigeration......Page 630 3.8.2.5 Corrosion Monitoring......Page 161 3.8.3.1.1 Wax Deposition Envelope......Page 162 3.8.3.1.2 Gas–Condensate Wax Deposition Envelope......Page 163 3.8.3.2 Wax Formation in Multiphase Gas–Condensate Pipelines......Page 167 3.8.3.2.1 Identification of Wax Deposition Problems......Page 168 3.8.3.2.2 Wax Deposition Inhibition/Prevention......Page 169 3.8.3.2.4 Controlled Production of Wax Deposits......Page 171 3.8.4.2 Terrain Induced Slugging......Page 172 3.8.4.3 Riser Induced (Severe) Slugging......Page 173 3.8.4.3.1 Severe Slugging Mechanism......Page 174 3.8.4.3.2 Stability Analysis......Page 176 3.8.4.3.3.2 Topside Choking......Page 177 3.8.4.3.3.3 Control Methods......Page 178 3.8.4.4 Operationally Induced Slugging......Page 179 3.8.5.1 Phase I: Assessing Flow Assurance Risks......Page 180 3.8.5.6 Phase VI: Real Time Flow Assurance Monitoring......Page 181 References......Page 182 22 . Energy and Exergy Analyses of Natural Gas Processing Plants......Page 189 22.2 Fundamentals of Energy Analyses......Page 671 20.3 Microprocessor-Based Automation......Page 190 4.3.1 Gas Plant With Hydrocarbon Dew Point Controlling......Page 191 24.4.1.1 The Project Charter......Page 767 4.3.1.3 Acid Gas Removal......Page 192 21.2.2.6 Expander Model......Page 193 24.5.2.1 Project Risk Management Methodology......Page 327 9.4.2.4 Comparison of Different Adsorbents......Page 194 22.5.10.3 Rich Feed Conditions......Page 195 4.3.2.4 Natural Gas Liquid Recovery and Fractionation......Page 196 D......Page 799 14.5 Compressor Selection......Page 198 18.3.1 Compressed Air System Design......Page 549 21.4.1 Process Description......Page 199 12.5.1 Feed Gas Characteristics......Page 200 13.7 High-Nitrogen Feed Gas......Page 201 19 . Process Modeling and Simulation of Gas Processing Plants......Page 581 19.2 Thermodynamics......Page 202 5.2.1 General Description......Page 203 13.4.2 Ethane Production......Page 418 5.2.2.2 Vertical Separators......Page 205 5.2.3 Gravity Separation Theory......Page 206 5.2.4 Design Considerations......Page 208 5.4 Centrifugal Separators......Page 209 5.5 Twister Supersonic Separator......Page 210 10.6 Mercury Removal From Natural Gas......Page 362 11.7 NGL Recovery Unit Operating Problems......Page 214 20.4.2.2 Thermocouples......Page 622 5.7.2 Coalescer Construction/Operation Principles......Page 215 7.7.1 Iron Sponge Process......Page 266 9.3.6.1 Absorber......Page 217 22.4.1.3 Mechanical Work Estimation......Page 218 5.7.3.4 Determination of Minimum Housing Diameter......Page 219 5.8.1 Emulsions......Page 220 7.7.4.1 Chemsweet Process......Page 267 13.7.2 Fluor Ethane Recovery Revamp......Page 392 13.8.1 Nitrogen-Rejection and Helium-Recovery Block Flow Diagram......Page 221 5.8.3.3 Separation of Coalesced Droplets......Page 222 5.8.5 Limitations of Using Coalescers......Page 224 20.7.1 Data Historians......Page 633 14.9 Compressor Control......Page 225 Modified Situation......Page 226 References......Page 227 A......Page 229 13.2 Unconventional Gas......Page 230 15.2.2 Friction Factor Correlations......Page 231 17.2.3 Initial Start-Up Procedures......Page 514 6.2.3.1 Stabilizer Column Pressure......Page 233 21.2.2 Optimization Models......Page 288 10.3 Mercury-Related Issues......Page 234 23.4 Organizational Behavior Model......Page 235 6.4.2 Sour Water Stripping......Page 236 12.5 Nitrogen Rejection Unit Design Considerations......Page 237 20.4.5 Speed......Page 238 10 . Mercury Removal......Page 240 17.1 Introduction......Page 512 7.4 Chemical Solvent Processes......Page 241 7.4.1.1 Monoethanolamine......Page 242 15.5.1.3 Compressor Drivers......Page 243 7.4.1.6 Sterically Hindered Amines......Page 244 7.4.1.7 Amine Processes......Page 245 7.4.1.7.1 Two-Stage Absorption Process......Page 247 7.4.1.7.2 Double Absorption Process......Page 248 7.4.1.8.3 Lean Amine Feed Locations......Page 249 7.4.1.8.5 Design Guidelines......Page 250 7.4.1.9 Amine Unit Operating Problems......Page 251 7.5.1.1 Fluor Solvent Unit......Page 256 7.5.1.2 Innovations in Fluor Solvent Process......Page 259 17.2.4 Process Commissioning......Page 260 7.5.2.2 Dimethyl Ether of Polyethylene Glycol Carbon Capture Process......Page 261 7.5.2.5 Hydrocarbon Dew Point Control......Page 263 7.5.4 N-Methyl-2-Pyrrolidone......Page 264 23.6 The Impact of Living with Information Technology......Page 265 7.8 Solid Bed Adsorption Process......Page 269 7.9 Membrane......Page 270 7.9.2 Membrane Process Disadvantages......Page 271 7.9.4 Membrane Processes......Page 272 7.9.5 Membrane Pretreatment System......Page 274 7.11 Microbiological Treatment Processes......Page 275 7.12 Selecting the Gas Treating Process......Page 276 References......Page 277 14.1 Introduction......Page 437 Normal and Standard Gas Conditions......Page 367 17.3.1 Roles and Responsibilities......Page 517 8.3.1 Modified Claus Process......Page 281 9.3.6.1.1 High Feed Gas Temperature......Page 282 21.2.2.7.3 Deethanizer......Page 284 8.3.1.2.1 Feed Preheating......Page 285 18.2.2.5.8 Leaching......Page 286 8.3.3 Small- and Medium-Scale Processes......Page 289 19.7.1.1 Thermodynamic Model Selection......Page 593 8.3.3.2 Redox Process......Page 290 18.8.1.2 Axial Flow Fans......Page 291 12.4 Cryogenic Nitrogen Rejection......Page 292 15.5.3 Station Control......Page 480 8.4.1.1 Hydrogenation Section......Page 293 21.2.3.1 Model Fidelity and Measurement Errors......Page 294 22.3.3 Electric Energy......Page 295 8.4.4.1 Integration with AGRU for Zero Emissions......Page 296 8.5 Sulfur Degassing......Page 297 22.4.2 Pros and Cons of the Method......Page 298 8.6.1 Molten Sulfur Handling System......Page 300 8.6.3 Conveying Formed Sulfur......Page 301 8.7.1 Piping......Page 302 17.4.1 Types of Maintenance......Page 303 8.8.1 Proper Air Ratio......Page 304 8.8.2 Reactor Activity......Page 305 8.8.7 Catalyst Support Screens......Page 306 8.9 Selecting the Sulfur Recovery Process......Page 307 8.10.1 Process Description......Page 309 8.10.2.2 Pipeline......Page 310 8.10.2.3 Injection......Page 311 References......Page 312 17.2 Commissioning and Start-Up......Page 315 17.2.1 Mechanical Completion and Precommissioning......Page 318 9.3.3 Glycol Injection Process......Page 322 9.3.5.1 Glycol Circulate Rate......Page 323 9.3.6 Operational Problems......Page 325 18.2.2.5.2 Cycles of Concentration......Page 326 9.4.1 Adsorption Capacity......Page 328 9.4.2.1 Molecular Sieves......Page 329 9.4.2.3 Activated Alumina......Page 332 9.4.3.1 Adsorption Principle......Page 333 9.4.3.2 Solid Bed Design Considerations......Page 334 9.4.4 Operation of Solid-Bed Dehydrator......Page 336 9.4.4.1 3+1 Mode of Operation......Page 337 9.4.4.1.2 Depressurization Step......Page 338 9.4.4.1.4 Cooling Step......Page 339 9.4.4.3 Other Modes of Operation......Page 340 22.5.10.5 Development of Energy-Efficient Processes for NGL Recovery......Page 720 17.3.7 Fatigue Mitigation......Page 523 9.4.5.3 Pressure Drop......Page 341 9.4.5.8 Insulation......Page 342 20.6.5.8 Reciprocating Pumps......Page 632 20.7.2.3 Acid Gas Treating Systems......Page 343 9.4.6.5 Corrosion Products......Page 344 9.4.6.8 Bed Refluxing......Page 345 9.4.6.11 Bottom Support......Page 346 9.4.6.16 Molecular Sieve Handling Safety......Page 347 9.6 Gas Dehydration Process Selection......Page 348 9.7.3 Process Options......Page 351 19.9.1 Design of the Safety System of an LNG Regasification Plant......Page 608 10.4 Mercury Distribution in Gas Processing Plants......Page 359 10.5.2 Nonregenerative Mercury Sorbents......Page 360 22.2.3 Closed Systems......Page 361 24.4.4 Project Execution Planning......Page 771 10.7 Disposal of Mercury-Contaminated Waste......Page 364 References......Page 365 22.2.1 First and Second Principles of Thermodynamics......Page 368 20.3.2 Distributed Control Systems......Page 371 11.3.4 Turboexpander NGL Recovery Processes......Page 375 16.3.2.1 Turbine Meters......Page 378 11.3.5 Lean Oil Absorption......Page 379 18.6.5 Loads......Page 483 11.3.6.1 Dual Column Reflux Process......Page 381 24.4.1.2 Project Team Roles and Responsibilities......Page 650 11.3.6.3 Ortloff SCORE......Page 383 11.3.6.5 Fluor TCHAP......Page 384 22.5.9.1 Application of the Exergy Analysis for the Optimal Design of Cascade Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycles......Page 385 11.3.7 Other Hydrocarbons Removal Processes......Page 386 11.3.7.2 Membrane Separation......Page 387 11.5 NGL Recovery Technology Development......Page 389 11.9.1.1 Caustic Processes......Page 393 11.9.1.2 Molecular Sieve Technology......Page 395 11.9.1.3 Amine Processes......Page 396 11.9.2 Dehydration......Page 397 References......Page 398 24 . Gas Plant Project Management......Page 400 16.1 Introduction......Page 492 12.3 Nitrogen Rejection Integration with NGL Recovery......Page 401 21.2.3 Plant Model Integration......Page 659 12.4.2 Modified Single-Column Design......Page 404 21.4.2 Plant Operation......Page 662 16.3.5 Meter Proving......Page 407 12.4.5 Process Selection......Page 408 12.6 Nitrogen Rejection Unit Operating Problems......Page 410 12.7 Helium Recovery......Page 411 12.7.1 Helium Recovery Process Configuration for High CO2 Lean Gas......Page 412 12.7.2 Helium RECOVERY Unit......Page 413 13.1 Introduction......Page 414 13.3 Shale Gas Versus Conventional Gas......Page 416 13.5.1 Hydrocarbon Dewpointing......Page 419 13.5.2 Relative Cost of NGL Recovery Levels......Page 420 13.5.3 Cryogenic Turboexpander Plants......Page 421 13.6 Unconventional NGL Recovery Process......Page 422 24.5.1 Project Timeline......Page 774 13.6.2 High Ethane Recovery Conversion......Page 423 20.4.6 Vibration......Page 625 13.8 Nitrogen- and Helium-Rich Gas......Page 428 13.8.2 Nitrogen-Rejection and Helium Gas–Recovery Process......Page 429 13.9 Offshore Carbon Dioxide Removal Design Considerations......Page 432 18.8.1 Air Cooling......Page 433 13.9.2 Acid Gas Fractionation with Methanol System......Page 435 References......Page 615 14.2 Reciprocating Compressors......Page 438 14.3 Centrifugal Compressors......Page 439 14.4 Comparison Between Compressors......Page 441 14.6 Thermodynamics of Gas Compression......Page 443 14.6.1 Basic Relations......Page 444 14.6.2 Isentropic Model......Page 445 14.6.3 Polytropic Model......Page 447 14.6.4 Real Gas Behavior......Page 448 14.7 Compression Ratio......Page 449 14.8.1 Determining Number of Compression Stages......Page 451 14.8.2 Compression Power Calculation......Page 452 14.9.1 Reciprocating Compressors......Page 454 14.9.2 Centrifugal Compressors......Page 455 18.10 Storage Facilities......Page 459 14.11 Example for Operating a Compressor in a Pipeline System......Page 460 References......Page 464 15.2 Gas Flow Fundamentals......Page 466 15.2.1 General Flow Equation......Page 467 23.4.3 Capability to Perform......Page 470 15.3 Predicting Gas Temperature Profile......Page 472 16.4 Flow meter Management......Page 474 E......Page 475 15.5.1.2 Compressors......Page 477 19.7.1.2 Modeling the TEG Dehydration System......Page 479 17.3.2 Process Safety Management......Page 481 21.4.5.1 Implementation and Usage of the Model......Page 667 15.6 Reduction and Metering Stations......Page 482 22.3.2.2 Pumps......Page 590 15.7.2 Compressor Station Spacing......Page 484 15.8 Pipeline Operations......Page 488 References......Page 490 16.2.1 Advantages of Mass-Based Energy Flow......Page 493 22.3 The Different Energy Contributions......Page 495 16.3.2.2 Mass Flow Meters......Page 499 17.3.8.4 Detailed Design......Page 503 16.3.2.5 Ultrasonic Meters......Page 504 16.3.4 Flow meter Performance......Page 505 16.5.1 Gas Chromatography......Page 508 16.6 Wobbe Index......Page 509 G......Page 803 References......Page 510 17.2.2 Control Systems Testing......Page 513 17.2.5 Performance Testing......Page 516 17.3.3 Hazard and Operability Study......Page 519 17.3.4 Layer of Protection Analysis......Page 520 17.3.6 Management of Change......Page 522 18.7.2 Steam Circuit......Page 563 20.3.2.1 Remote Control Panel......Page 525 17.3.8.8 Monitoring and Assessment......Page 526 17.3.9 Training......Page 527 17.3.10 Shift Change......Page 528 24.4 The Project Management Process......Page 766 17.4.1.1 Breakdown Maintenance......Page 529 17.4.1.6 Proactive “Life Extension” Maintenance......Page 530 21.4.5.6 Use for Planners......Page 669 17.4.3 Reliability Centered Maintenance......Page 531 20.5 Analyzers......Page 532 17.5.1.2 Identify and Locate the Cause of the Trouble......Page 533 17.5.2 Troubleshooting Documentation......Page 534 19.9.2 Online Dynamic Model of a Trunk Pipeline......Page 610 17.6 Turnarounds......Page 536 References......Page 537 18 . Utility and Offsite Systems in Gas Processing Plants......Page 539 B......Page 795 21.2.1 Physical Properties......Page 648 18.2.2 Cooling Towers......Page 541 18.2.2.2 Counterflow Cooling Towers......Page 543 21.2.2.3 Fractionators......Page 544 23.4.2.4 Performance Messages......Page 747 18.2.2.5.5 Plume......Page 545 18.2.2.5.13 Fans......Page 546 19.8.2.3.3 Piping Equipment......Page 605 18.2.2.6 Cooling Tower Efficiency Calculations......Page 547 18.6.1 Electrical System Design......Page 556 18.6.2 Power Factor Correction......Page 557 18.6.3 Harmonics Management......Page 558 24.5.2 Risk Management......Page 559 18.6.6 Power Supply and Switchgear......Page 560 18.7 Process Heating......Page 561 18.7.1 Boilers......Page 562 H......Page 641 18.8.1.1 Tube Bundles......Page 565 18.8.1.4 Mechanical Equipment......Page 567 22.5.11.1 Condensate Stabilization......Page 723 18.8.1.9 Fan Selection—Horsepower Requirements......Page 570 20.6.5.5 NGL Fractionation......Page 631 18.8.1.10.1 Varying Air Flow......Page 571 18.9 Flare Systems......Page 572 18.9.1 Flare Gas Recovery Systems......Page 573 18.11 Wastewater Treatment......Page 576 18.12 Drains......Page 577 18.15 Fire and Gas System......Page 578 References......Page 579 20.1 Introduction......Page 617 19.3 Steady-State Versus Dynamic Models......Page 583 19.4.2 Lumped Parameter Versus Distributed Models......Page 585 19.5 Process Simulation Approaches......Page 586 19.5.1 Modular Approach for Steady-State Models......Page 587 23.10.1 Tools for Optimization......Page 756 19.5.6 Hybrid Approach for Dynamic Models......Page 588 19.6.1.1 Component Lists......Page 589 19.6.2.2 Solution Order......Page 591 19.7.2 Sour Gas Sweetening With Amines......Page 594 19.7.3 Turboexpander NGL Recovery......Page 595 24.5.2.7 Project Risk Management in Interaction With Other Management Processes......Page 596 19.7.3.4 NGL Fractionation Train......Page 598 19.7.4.1 Thermodynamic Model Selection......Page 599 19.8.1.1.1 Controllability and Operability......Page 600 19.8.1.1.5 Operator Training......Page 601 19.8.1.2.3 Incident Analysis......Page 602 19.8.1.2.6 Advanced Process Control......Page 603 19.8.2.2 Model Speed......Page 604 19.8.2.3.6 Control Systems......Page 606 19.8.3.4 Gas Dehydration......Page 607 20.7.7.2 Determining the Benefits......Page 613 L......Page 807 20.3.1 Programmable Logic Controllers......Page 618 20.3.2.3 Central Control......Page 619 20.4.1.5 Vortex Shedding......Page 621 20.4.4 Liquid Level......Page 624 20.6.1 Gas Gathering......Page 627 20.6.4.1 Absorption......Page 629 20.7.2.2 Gas Compressors......Page 634 22.5.9 Exergy Analysis for the Optimal Design of Refrigeration Cycles......Page 635 20.7.5 Multivariable Predictive Control......Page 636 20.7.6 Optimization......Page 638 20.7.7.1 Automation Upgrade Master Plans......Page 639 20.7.7.2.2 Statistical Analysis......Page 640 References......Page 644 21.2 Real-Time Optimization......Page 645 21.2.2.7 Distillation Calculations......Page 653 21.2.2.7.8 Demethanizer Feed Chilling Models......Page 656 21.2.2.9 Turbines......Page 657 21.3 Real-Time Optimization Project Considerations......Page 660 21.4 Example of Real-Time Optimization......Page 661 21.4.3 Production Objectives......Page 664 21.4.4 Project Drivers......Page 665 21.4.5.2 Modeling and Optimization Strategy......Page 668 References......Page 670 23.1 Introduction......Page 742 22.2.2 Energy Balance......Page 676 22.2.4 Open Systems......Page 677 22.3.1 Pinch Technology......Page 679 22.3.2.1 Compressors......Page 684 22.4 The Net Equivalent Methane Approach: The Actual Energy Performances in Natural Gas Processing Plants......Page 685 22.4.1 Basic Assumptions......Page 686 23.4.2.3 Dynamic Performance Measures......Page 687 22.4.1.2 Cooling Duty Estimation......Page 688 22.5.1 Exergy Concept and Exergy Balances......Page 689 22.5.1.1 Closed Systems......Page 692 22.5.1.2 Open Systems......Page 693 22.5.2 Exergy Associated to Mechanical Work......Page 694 22.5.4 Exergy Associated to Mass Flows......Page 695 22.5.8 The Net Equivalent Methane Approach for the Comparison of Low-Temperature Purification Processes With Amine Scrubbing......Page 700 22.5.10.1 Inefficiencies in NGL Recovery Processes......Page 713 22.5.10.2 Lean Feed Conditions......Page 715 22.5.10.4 Overall Comparison......Page 719 22.5.12.1 Flexibility and Operability Analysis of an HEN-Integrated Natural Gas Expander Plant......Page 726 22.5.12.2 Optimizing Ethane Recovery in Turboexpander Processes......Page 733 22.5.13 Retrofit of Existing Gas Processing Plants......Page 735 22.5.13.1 A Novel NGL Recovery Process Based on Self-Heat Recuperation......Page 737 References......Page 739 23.2 The Performance Strategy of the Integrated Gas Plant......Page 743 23.3 Strategies for Organizational Behavior and Information......Page 744 23.4.1 Information Quality......Page 745 23.4.2.2 Prediction Trends......Page 746 23.4.4 Organizational Hierarchy of Needs......Page 750 23.5 The Successful Information Strategy......Page 751 23.7 Vision of the Modern Plant Operation......Page 753 23.8 Operations Strategy......Page 754 23.10 Optimization......Page 755 23.10.2 Optimization Alternatives......Page 757 23.11 Industrial Relevance......Page 758 23.13 Scientific Approach......Page 759 23.14 Other Miscellaneous Initiatives......Page 760 23.15 Conclusion......Page 761 References......Page 763 24.2 Project Management Overview......Page 764 24.3 Industry Perspective......Page 765 24.4.2 Contracting Strategy......Page 768 24.4.3 Conceptual Estimates and Schedules......Page 769 24.4.3.1 HAZOP Analysis......Page 770 24.4.6 The Responsibility Matrix......Page 772 24.5.2.2 Risk Response Planning......Page 777 24.5.2.5 Quantitative Project Risk Management Assessment......Page 779 24.5.2.6 Risk Process Modeling......Page 780 24.6 Quality Assurance......Page 782 24.8 Operate and Evaluate......Page 784 24.10 Conclusion......Page 785 References......Page 786 Physical Properties of Fluids......Page 789 C......Page 796 F......Page 802 I......Page 806 M......Page 808 N......Page 810 P......Page 812 R......Page 815 S......Page 816 T......Page 819 V......Page 821 Z......Page 822 Back Cover......Page 824