The Suez Canal: Past Lessons and Future Challenges

Description

This open access book seeks to provide a survey of historical, geopolitical, economic, and environmental developments in the last 150 years and to highlight future challenges it faces as it pertains to the areas mentioned earlier. It argues that the centrality of the canal―geo-strategically and otherwise―requires a shift in scholarly focus to study the various aspects from an interdisciplinary perspective. This book addresses several gaps in the literature―the first being a lack of a systematic examination of historical aspects in the development of the canal in 150 years. The second is a careful study of the canal’s geostrategic importance. The third is a combination of several disciplines that examine the centrality of the Suez Canal. Acknowledgments Introduction A brief history of the Canal The Suez Canal and the Superpowers The Book’s Structure Praise for The Suez Canal: Past Lessons and Future Challenges Contents Notes on Contributors List of Figures List of Tables Part I Politics, Geopolitics, and Geostrategy The Suez Canal: Forthcoming Strategic and Geopolitical Challenges The Suez Canal in Egypt’s Economy: General Characteristics Expansion of the Suez Canal and China’s Belt and Road Initiative Maritime Security and the Suez Canal Alternative Trade Routes: An Emerging Challenge Egypt’s Approach to Securing the Suez Canal Conclusions: Egypt’s Challenges and Opportunities in the Suez Canal Notes China and the Suez Canal—Politics, Economy, and Logistics Developments in Egypt Suez Canal Doubling Initiative Egypt Vision 2030 The New Administrative Capital Initiative The Golden Triangle Project in Southern Egypt China Chinese Foreign Policy Egypt and China Diversifying Egypt’s Foreign Relations Beyond the United States to Ties with China and Russia Chinese Shipping as a Significant (Albeit Perhaps “Captive”) Customer of the Suez Canal China as a Provider of Infrastructure Services Chinese Investments Entering Egypt as Source for Foreign Capital and New Technology Chinese Projects in Egypt Conclusion Notes The Butterfly Effect: The Influence of the Nixon Administration’s Preoccupation with Vietnam on Sadat’s February 1971 Proposal to Reopen the Suez Canal New President, New Opportunities A Dress Rehearsal for February: General Amin’s Mission Sadat’s Initiative to Reopen the Suez Canal The Sounds of Silence from the White House Conclusion Notes Part II Energy Aspects Suez and the United States: Oil, Lifelines, and “All of Mankind” in the Cold War Suez, Oil, and the Early Cold War “The Loss of Suez,” 1956 The Suez Threat in 1967 The Energy Crisis Conclusion Notes The Global Oil Market and the Status of the Suez Canal The Suez Canal and the Oil Industry in the Middle East The Arab–Israeli Conflict and Its Effect on the Transport of Oil Through the Canal Oil Crises and Their Effect on Canal Traffic and Income The Effect of OPEC on the Suez Canal Future Trends in the Oil Market and Their Impact on the Status of the Suez Canal Conclusions Notes Part III Legal Aspects Freedom of Navigation in the Suez Canal and the Channels: Law of the Sea “Strait” and “Canal”: Definitions under the Law of the Sea Development of the Right to Freedom of Navigation in the Suez Canal and the Straits The Right to Freedom of Navigation in the Suez Canal The Right to Freedom of Navigation in the Straits Discussion and Conclusion Notes International Law and Freedom of Navigation Through the Suez Canal The 1888 Constantinople Convention Egyptian Legal Justifications for Preventing Israeli Use of the Canal The Relevance of the 1949 Egypt-Israel Armistice Agreement The Role of the UN as Regards Navigation in the Canal The Canal Post-1967 Notes Israel’s Freedom of Passage in the Suez Canal, 1957–1967 Israel and Attainment of Freedom of Passage in the Suez Canal, 1948–1956 The Attainment of a Tacit Arrangement Regarding Freedom of Passage in the Suez Canal Following the War, November 1956–July 1957 UNSG Activities Egyptian Policy and Hammarskjöld’s Efforts After the Opening of the Canal External Pressures Israeli Policy Formation, April–June 1957 Linkage and the Israeli Political-Legal Quagmire Applying the Chosen Political Course Operation of the “Tacit Understanding,” July 1957–March 1959 Passage of Contraband Cargo Passage of Ships Under the Israeli Flag The Collapse of the “Tacit Understanding” and Israel’s Failure to Restore It, March 1959–June 1960 Israel’s Response After the Detention of the Inge Toft The Legal and Diplomatic Struggle Military Response Hammarskjöld’s Compromise: The “Effective Stand” The Loan from the IBRD “The Quiet Test”: Testing the “Effective Stand” (the Astypalea) The Inge Toft Affair: Conclusion Continuation of the Diplomatic Struggle: The Attempt to Release the Astypalea Propaganda Gains Military Response Finale Conclusion Notes Part IV Environmental and Human Impacts The Impact of the Suez Canal on Egypt’s Geography and Economy, 1867–2019 (150 Years Since Its Opening) Defining the Suez Canal Area Suez Canal—Basic Data (Source SCA) The Canal's Contribution to Urbanization, Population and Dispersal of the Population in Egypt The Contribution of the Canal Area to Egyptian Agriculture Data Indirect Implications of the Suez Canal for Egypt's Economy and Security What Is Israel's Connection to the Canal Area? Conclusion Notes Bibliography A Sea, a Canal, a Disaster: The Suez Canal and the Transformation of the Mediterranean Biota The Mediterranean Sea The Suez Canal A Very Brief History The Expansion of the Suez Canal A Disaster Legislative Response, But No Action, to Erythraean Invasions in the Mediterranean Sea Notes Increased Anthropogenic Activity in the Mediterranean Since the Opening of the Suez Canal Anthropogenic Activity in the Mediterranean Sea Mapping Human Impacts in the Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean Sea Stressors Suez Canal Oil Pollution Artificial Nighttime Light Pollution Conclusion Notes References Stranding of the Mega-Ship Ever Given in the Suez Canal: Causes, Consequences, and Lessons to Be Learned Historic Perspective Narrative of Events The Aftermath Discussion Notes Conclusion What Have We Learned? Where Do We Go from Here? Interaction Strategies Intervention Stability Conclusion Index