Tubulointerstitial Nephritis

Description

This book provides comprehensive, cutting-edge scientific data on acute and chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis, an area that has not been fully addressed in many nephrology textbooks. This book covers all relevant aspects of the disease, from historical aspects and pathogenesis to diagnosis, pathological findings, treatment, and prognosis and outcomes. The chapters also discuss both immune and non-immune mediated forms of the disease, as well as entities causing tubulointerstitial disease such as medications and toxins, infectious agents, autoimmune diseases, transplant rejection, genetic diseases, infiltrative disease and chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology. The text features up-to-date educational materials that will benefit both basic and clinical scientists. Written by experts in the field, Tubulointerstitial Nephritis is a valuable resource for clinicians, practitioners, researchers and trainees working in the field of nephrology and internal medicine. Contents Contributors Part I: History and Epidemiology Tubulointerstital Nephritis: A History of Its Conceptual Evolution 1 Foundations 1.1 Acute Interstitial Nephritis 1.2 Chronic Tubulointerstitial Nephritis Suggested Reading Epidemiology of Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 1 Introduction 2 Incidence of Interstitial Nephritis 3 Etiology of AIN 4 Drug Induced AIN 5 Endemic Nephritis 6 Conclusion Suggested Reading Part II: Pathogenesis Pathogenesis of Acute Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 1 Introduction 2 Immune ATIN 3 Allergic ATIN 4 Toxic ATIN 4.1 Aristolochic Acid 4.1.1 Cellular Toxicity and Inflammation and Fibrosis 4.2 Cellular Toxicity 4.3 Inflammation and Fibrosis 4.4 Heavy Metals 4.5 Transport and Uptake 4.6 Toxicity 4.7 Lithium 5 Metabolic ATIN 5.1 Uric Acid 5.2 Oxalate 5.3 Hypokalemia 6 Genetic ATIN 6.1 Karyomegalic Interstitial Nephritis 6.2 Familial Nephronophthisis 6.3 Tubulointerstitial-Uveitis Syndrome (TINU) 6.4 Autosomal Dominant Tubulointerstitial Kidney Disease (ADTKD) 7 Infiltrative ATIN 7.1 Sjogren’s Syndrome 7.2 Sarcoidosis 7.3 Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) Nephritis 7.4 IgG4 Disease Suggested Reading Part III: Causes of Immune Mediated Tubulointerstitial Nephritis Causes of Acute Tubulointerstitial Nephritis: Drugs 1 Introduction 2 Antimicrobials 3 Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs 4 Proton-Pump Inhibitors 5 5–Aminosalicylates 6 Anticancer Drugs 6.1 Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors 6.2 Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors 6.3 Platinum Agents 6.4 Ifosfamide 6.5 Other Anticancer Agents 7 Other Drugs 8 Conclusions Suggested Reading Viral-Induced Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 1 Hantavirus Nephropathy 2 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection 3 BK Virus-Associated Nephropathy 4 Adenoviral Nephritis 5 Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Interstitial Nephritis Suggested Reading Bacterial and Parasitic-Related Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 1 Introduction 2 Bacterial Causes of Interstitial Disease 2.1 Mycobacterium tuberculosis 2.2 Leptospirosis 2.3 Leprosy 3 Parasitic Causes of Interstitial Nephritis 3.1 Mechanisms by Which Parasites Affect the Kidney 4 Conclusion Suggested Reading Tubulointerstitial Nephritis Due to Autoimmune Diseases 1 Introduction 2 Sarcoidosis 2.1 Pathology 2.2 Treatment and Prognosis 3 Systemic Lupus Erythematosus 3.1 Pathology 3.2 Treatment and Prognosis 4 Tubulointerstitial Nephritis and Uveitis 4.1 Pathology 4.2 Treatment and Prognosis 5 Sjogren’s Syndrome 5.1 Pathology 5.2 Treatment and Prognosis 6 ANCA-Associated Vasculitis 6.1 Pathology 6.2 Treatment and Prognosis 7 Other Autoimmune Diseases 8 Conclusions Suggested Reading IgG4-Related Tubulointerstitial Kidney Disease 1 Overview of IgG4-Related Disease (IgG4-RD) 2 IgG4-Related Kidney Disease (IgG4-RKD) 3 Clinical Manifestations of IgG4-RKD 3.1 IgG4-Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 3.2 IgG4-Related Membranous Glomerulonephritis 4 Radiologic Findings in IgG4-TIN 5 The Spectrum of the Pathology of IgG4-RKD 5.1 Tubulointerstitial and Vascular Involvement 5.2 Glomerular Involvement 6 Treatment and Prognosis of IgG4-RKD 7 The Pathogenesis of IgG4-RD Suggested Reading Anti-Brush Border Antibody (ABBA)-Associated Tubulointerstitial Disease Suggested Reading Transplant Rejection and Infection Associated Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 1 Introduction 2 Transplant Rejection Associated Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 2.1 Presentation 2.2 Pathology 2.3 Treatment 3 Transplant Infection Associated Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 3.1 Cytomegalovirus Associated TIN 3.2 Presentation 3.3 Pathology 3.4 Treatment 3.5 BK Virus-Associated TIN 3.5.1 Presentation 3.5.2 Pathology 3.5.3 Treatment 3.6 Adenovirus Associated TIN 3.6.1 Presentation 3.6.2 Pathology 3.6.3 Treatment 4 Conclusion Suggested Reading Part IV: Causes of non-Immune Mediated Tubulointerstitial Nephritis Genetic Diseases Associated with Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 1 Autosomal Dominant Tubulointerstitial Kidney Disease (ADTKD) 1.1 Clinical Description 1.2 Kidney Biopsy 1.3 Epidemiology 1.4 Pathophysiology 1.5 Molecular Genetic Diagnosis 1.6 Therapies 2 Nephronophthisis 2.1 Epidemiology and Clinical Description 2.2 Laboratory Studies and Kidney Biopsy 2.3 Physiology and Pathophysiology 2.4 Diagnosis 2.5 Therapies 3 Differential Diagnosis 4 Other Genetic Diseases of Interest 5 Conclusion Suggested Reading Cystinosis 1 Introduction 2 Genetics 3 Kidney Pathology 4 Clinical Manifestations 4.1 Kidney Disease 4.2 Ocular Involvement 4.3 Growth Impairment 4.4 Other Clinical Findings 5 Diagnosis and Treatment 5.1 Symptomatic Therapy 5.2 Specific Treatment Suggested Reading Chronic Tubulointerstitial Nephritis: Hypokalemia, Hyperoxaluria, and Hyperuricemia 1 Introduction 2 Hypokalemic Chronic Interstitial Nephritis 2.1 Epidemiology 2.2 Pathophysiology 2.3 Histopathology 2.4 Clinical Picture 2.5 Treatment 3 Oxalate Nephropathy 3.1 Epidemiology 3.2 Pathophysiology 3.3 Histopathology 3.4 Clinical Presentation 3.5 Treatment 4 Uric Acid Nephropathy 4.1 Epidemiology 4.2 Pathophysiology 4.3 Histopathology 4.4 Clinical Presentation 4.5 Treatment 5 Conclusion Suggested Reading Non-immunological Causes of Tubulointerstitial Disease 1 Historical Perspectives 2 Heavy Metal Toxicity 2.1 Lead 2.2 Cadmium 2.2.1 Diagnosis of Cadmium Toxicity 2.2.2 Treatment of Cadmium Toxicity 2.3 Arsenic 2.4 Chromium 2.5 Mercury 2.6 Uranium 2.7 Treatment of Heavy Metal Toxicity 3 Plants, Mushrooms, and Herbal Medications 4 Therapeutic Agents 5 Radiation 6 Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology (CKDu) 7 Conclusion Suggested Reading Reflux and Obstructive Nephropathy 1 Introduction 2 Etiology 3 Clinical Presentation 4 Diagnosis 5 Management Suggested Reading Aristolochic Acid Nephropathy and Balkan Nephropathy 1 Introduction 1.1 Aristolochia Species 2 The Toxicity of Aristolochic Acids 3 Natural History of the Disease 4 Kidney Pathology 5 Diagnosis 6 Prevention 7 Treatment Suggested Reading Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology 1 The Disease and Its Toll 2 Pathology Findings 3 Investigations into Cause: Major Hypotheses of Interest 3.1 Social Determinants 3.2 Heat Stress and Dehydration 3.3 Agrochemical and Metals 3.4 Genetics 3.5 Use of Anti-inflammatory Drugs 3.6 Infectious Diseases 4 Ongoing Research Efforts 5 Summary Suggested Reading Infiltrative Disease of the Tubulointerstitium 1 Infiltrative Diseases of the Tubulointerstitium 2 Lymphoproliferative Disorders 2.1 Lymphomatous Infiltrates 2.2 Lymphoplasmacytic Lymphomas 2.3 Leukemic Infiltrates 2.4 Plasma Cell Dyscrasia Associated Infiltrative Diseases 2.5 Immunodeficiency Related Lymphoproliferative Disorders of the Kidney 3 Solid Cancers 3.1 Renal Cell Carcinoma 3.2 Urothelial Carcinomas 3.3 Primary Renal Sarcoma 3.4 Metastases to the Kidneys 3.5 Pediatric Kidney Tumors Suggested Reading Part V: Diagnosis Clinical Features and Laboratory Findings in Acute Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 1 Introduction 2 Clinical Features 3 Serum Tests 4 Urine Findings 5 Imaging Tests 6 Novel Serum and Urine Biomarkers Suggested Reading Imaging Modalities for Acute Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 1 Introduction 2 Ultrasonography 3 Computed Tomography Imaging 4 67Gallium Scintigraphy 5 Positron Emission Tomography-CT Imaging 6 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 7 Conclusion Suggested Reading Pathology of Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 1 Introduction 2 Allergic/Drug-Induced Interstitial Nephritis 3 Infectious Interstitial Nephritis 3.1 Viral Infections 3.2 Bacterial Infections (Pyelonephritis) 3.2.1 Xanthogranulomatous Pyelonephritis, Malakoplakia, Megalocytic Interstitial Nephritis 4 Granulomatous Interstitial Nephritis 5 Autoimmune Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 6 Immune Complex-Mediated Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 7 Other Autoimmune Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 8 Chronic Interstitial Nephropathies 9 Hereditary, Metabolic and Other Types of Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 10 Mimics of Tubulointerstitial Nephritis Suggested Reading Part VI: Treatment Management of Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 1 Introduction 2 Identifying and Removing the Culprit Drug 3 Treatment with Corticosteroids 4 Corticosteroid Use Versus Conservative Management 4.1 DI-AIN 5 Intravenous Versus Oral Route of Corticosteroids 6 Length of Corticosteroid Therapy 7 Length of Corticosteroid Taper 8 Alternative Therapies for AIN 9 Conclusions Suggested Reading Part VII: Prognosis/Outcomes Prognosis and Outcomes of Acute Tubulointerstitial Nephritis 1 Introduction 2 Overall Renal Outcomes 3 Risk Factors for Adverse Renal Outcome 4 Corticosteroids and Renal Outcome 5 Prognosis According to Age Category 5.1 Pediatric Patients 5.2 Elderly Patients 6 Prognosis According to Specific Etiology 6.1 Drugs 6.1.1 Overall Outcomes 6.1.2 Proton-Pump Inhibitors (PPIs) 6.1.3 NSAIDs 6.1.4 Antibiotics 6.2 Malignancy 6.2.1 ICPIs Therapy and Other Cancer Treatments 6.2.2 Myelodysplastic Syndrome 6.3 Auto-immune/inflammatory Disorders 6.3.1 Tubulointerstitial Nephritis with Uveitis (TINU) 6.3.2 IgG4-Associated Renal Disease 6.3.3 Sjögren’s Syndrome 6.4 Infections 6.4.1 Leptospirosis 6.4.2 Hantavirus 6.4.3 Yersinia Pseudotuberculosis (Y. Pseudotuberculosis) 6.4.4 HIV 6.5 Other Etiologies 6.5.1 Mesoamerican Nephropathy/CKDu 7 Conclusion Suggested Reading Index