Advances in Research on Vegetable Production Under a Changing Climate Vol. 2

Description

This second volume on the topic will be extremely useful for the researchers and postgraduate students working on vegetable crops with a special focus on climate change. Today, the entire world is suffering from global warming and its consequent, climate change. This has emerged as the most prominent global environmental issue and there is an urgent need to mitigate its impact on agriculture. Over the past 20 years South Asia has had a robust economic growth, yet it is home to more than one fourth of the world’s hunger and 40% of the world’s malnourished children and women. Persistent climatic variability, which results in frequent drought and flood, is among the major reasons for this phenomenon. Vegetables are in general more succulent (have 90% water) and more sensitive to climatic vagaries and sudden changes in temperature, as well as irregular precipitation at any phase of crop growing, can affect the normal growth, flowering, pollination, fruit setting, fruit development and fruit ripening which eventually decreases the yield. The irregular precipitation also causes the soil salinity and is a major challenge in many vegetable growing areas. To mitigate the harmful impact of climatic change there is an urgent need to develop adequate adaptation strategies for adverse effect of climate change and preference should be given to the development of heat, cold, drought, flood and salinity stress tolerant genotypes along with climate proofing through conventional and non-conventional breeding techniques, as well as exploiting the beneficial effects of CO2 enhancement on crop growth and yield. Available evidence shows that there is high probability of increase in the frequency and intensity of climate related natural hazards due to climate change and hence increase the potential threat due to climate change related natural disasters in the world. At present protected cultivation and grafted seedlings are also popularizing among vegetable growers because of the huge scope as well as, molecular breeding, emerging insect-pests & diseases and postharvest quality of vegetables under this climate change scenario. Moreover, underexploited vegetables, perennial vegetable and tuber crops have a more tolerant ability to climate vagaries compare to major vegetables which are also discussed in this book. Preface Contents About the Editors Contributors Abbreviations Chapter 1: Advances in Research Trends in Vegetables Under a Changing Climate: A Way Forward 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Effect of Climate Change on Vegetable Production and Its Management Techniques 1.2.1 Temperature 1.2.1.1 Plant Response to Heat Stress 1.2.1.2 Plant Heat Stress Defence Mechanisms 1.2.1.3 Heat Responsive Genes 1.2.2 Drought 1.2.2.1 Plant Response to Drought 1.2.2.2 Defence Mechanisms Against Drought Stress 1.2.2.3 Drought Responsive Genes 1.2.3 Salinity 1.2.3.1 Plant Response to Salinity Stress 1.2.3.2 Plant Salinity Defence Mechanisms 1.2.3.3 Salinity Responsive Genes 1.2.4 Flood 1.2.5 Responses of Insects and Diseases to Climate Change 1.2.6 Adaptive Management Strategies for Climate Change 1.2.7 Plant Biotechnology 1.2.8 Climate Change in the Future and Its Effects on Vegetable Production 1.2.9 Conclusions References Chapter 2: Emerging Obstacles of Vegetable Production Due to Climate Change and Mitigation Strategies 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Obstacles of Changing Climate in Vegetable Production 2.2.1 Heat Stress 2.2.2 Cold/Chilling Stress 2.2.3 Drought Stress 2.2.4 Waterlogging/Flooding 2.2.5 Salinity 2.2.6 Air Pollution and UV Radiation 2.3 Change in Response of Pests and Diseases Due to Climatic Change 2.4 Mitigation Strategies 2.4.1 Development of Climate Resilient Genotypes Through Conventional Breeding Approaches 2.4.1.1 Identification of Suitable Selection Criteria 2.4.1.2 Development of Improved Varieties 2.4.2 Modern Approaches for Development of Climate Stress Resilience 2.4.2.1 Identification of QTLs for Abiotic Stress Resistance 2.4.2.2 Development of Transgenics 2.4.2.3 Gene Silencing 2.4.2.3.1 Salinity 2.4.2.3.2 Heat Stress 2.4.2.3.3 Cold Stress 2.4.2.3.4 Drought Stress 2.4.2.3.5 Heavy Metal Stress 2.4.2.3.6 Nutritional Deprivation 2.4.3 Grafting for Stress Tolerance 2.4.4 Cultural Practices 2.4.5 Plant Growth Regulators and Osmoprotectants Influencing Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants 2.4.6 Crop Modelling or Simulation 2.5 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Impact of Climate Change on Nutraceutical Properties of Vegetables 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Improvement of Nutrition in Vegetables 3.3 Quality of Vegetables/Fruits and Elevated CO2 3.4 Vitamin C, Sugars and Acidity 3.5 Total Phenols, Anthocyanins and Flavonoids 3.6 Volatile Aroma Compounds 3.7 Mineral Nutrients 3.8 Effect of High Temperature on Quality 3.9 Vitamin C, Sugars and Acidity 3.10 Phenols, Flavonoids and Anthocyanins 3.11 Lycopene and Carotenoids Content 3.12 Terpenoids 3.13 Stress from Water’s Impact 3.14 Sugars, Ascorbic Acid and Acidity 3.15 Phenols, Flavonoids and Anthocyanins 3.16 Lycopene and Carotenoids 3.17 Salinity Stress 3.18 Phenols, Flavonoids and Anthocyanins 3.19 Lycopene and Carotenoids 3.20 Conclusion References Chapter 4: Nutritional Stress Management in Vegetable Crops Under Changing Climate Scenario 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Effect of Nutrient Deficiency Stress in Vegetable Crops 4.3 The Essential Nutrient Elements 4.4 Movement in Soil 4.5 Nitrogen (N) 4.6 Visual Deficiency Symptoms of N 4.7 Phosphorus (P) 4.8 Visual Deficiency Symptoms of P 4.9 Potassium (K) 4.10 Visual Deficiency Symptoms of K 4.11 Calcium (Ca) 4.12 Magnesium (Mg) 4.13 Visual Deficiency Symptoms of Mg 4.14 Sulphur (S) 4.15 Visual Deficiency Symptoms of S 4.16 Iron (Fe) 4.17 Visual Deficiency Symptoms of Fe 4.18 Visual Deficiency Symptoms of Mn 4.19 Zinc (Zn) 4.20 Visual Deficiency Symptoms of Zn 4.21 Copper (Cu) 4.22 Visual Deficiency Symptoms of Cu 4.23 Boron (B) 4.24 Visual Deficiency Symptoms of B 4.25 Fertilizer Nutrient Management for Enhancing Productivity and Nutrient Use Efficiency 4.26 Components Used for Enhancing Fertilizer Use Efficiency 4.26.1 Chemical Fertilizers 4.27 Inclusion of Legumes in the Cropping System 4.28 Legumes as Green Manures 4.29 Crop Residues 4.30 Bio-fertilizers 4.31 Industrial By-Products and Municipal Wastes 4.32 Enhancing Crop Nutrient Use Efficiency 4.33 Crop Characteristics 4.34 Soil Characteristics 4.35 Fertilizer Characteristics and Fertilizer Manipulations 4.36 Conclusion References Chapter 5: Impact of Climate Change on Leafy and Salad Vegetables Production 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Importance of Leafy Vegetables and Salad Crops 5.3 Factors Responsible for Climate Change on Leafy and Salad Vegetable Production 5.3.1 Temperature 5.3.1.1 Effects of Temperature on Seed Germination 5.3.1.2 Effect of Temperature on Growth and Development 5.3.1.3 On Nutritional Properties of Leaves 5.3.1.4 Effect of Temperature on Quality of Produce 5.3.1.5 On Disease Development 5.3.1.6 Effect of Temperature on Physiological Disorders 5.3.2 Light 5.3.3 Effect of CO2 5.3.4 Rainfall 5.3.5 Humidity 5.3.6 Frost 5.3.7 Hail 5.3.8 Soil Factors 5.3.8.1 Soil Salinity 5.3.8.2 Heavy Metals 5.4 Mitigation of Negative Impacts of Climate Change 5.4.1 Strengthening of Crop Management Systems 5.4.2 Efficient Irrigation Management 5.4.3 Water Conserving Agronomical Practices 5.4.4 Promotion of Climate-Resilient Leafy Vegetables 5.4.5 High Temperatures Tolerance 5.4.6 Salinity Tolerance 5.5 Conclusion References Chapter 6: Impact of Climate Change on Perennial Vegetables Production and Mitigation Strategies 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Impact of Climate Change on Perennial Vegetable Crops 6.2.1 Elevated CO2 Changes Yield and Quality of Produce 6.2.2 High Temperatures Accelerate Plant Development 6.2.3 Extreme Weather Events Reduce Yield and Quality of Produce 6.2.4 Effect of Temperature on Physiology of Perennial Vegetables 6.2.5 Influence of Drought 6.2.6 Increase in Soil Salinity 6.2.7 Flooding Interferes to Crop Growth and Production 6.2.8 Insect Responses to Climatic Change 6.2.9 Crop Adaptation to Extreme Overall Climate Stresses 6.2.9.1 Positive Impact 6.2.9.2 Negative Impact 6.3 Mitigation Strategies 6.3.1 Implications of Moringa Tree to Climate Change Mitigation 6.3.2 Good Agronomic Practices 6.3.3 Breeding Techniques 6.3.4 Genetic Engineering for Stress Resistance in Plants 6.3.5 Grafting Improves Stress Tolerance 6.3.6 Developing Climate Resilient Vegetables 6.4 Conclusion References Chapter 7: Impact of Climate Change on Underexploited Vegetable Crops Production and Mitigation Strategies 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Vegetable Production and Management Practices in the Face of Climate Change 7.2.1 Impact of Climatic Changes on Underexploited Vegetable Production 7.2.1.1 Temperature 7.2.1.2 Impact of Low Temperature on Vegetables 7.2.1.3 Impact of Flood 7.2.1.4 Impact of Drought 7.2.1.5 Impact of Salinity 7.3 Conclusion References Chapter 8: Impact of Climate Change on Tuber Crops Production and Mitigation Strategies 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Effect of Temperature on Tuber Crops 8.3 Effect of Elevated CO2 on Tuber Crops 8.4 Increased CO2 and Temperature’s Impact on Tuber Crops Productivity 8.5 Impact Quality of Tuber Crops 8.6 Cassava Production in the World 8.6.1 Biotic and Abiotic Stresses 8.6.2 Physiological Adaptation of Plant 8.6.3 Cassava Farmers’ Knowledge About Climate Change 8.6.4 Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change 8.6.4.1 Relativity in the Use of Climate Change 8.6.4.2 Mitigation 8.6.4.3 Awareness and Promotion for Tuber Crops Production 8.6.5 Market Expansion and Product Variety 8.7 Drought 8.8 India’s Regional Vulnerability to Climate Change 8.9 Extreme Weather Event Observations 8.10 Measures of Adaptation to Climate Change and Global Warming 8.10.1 Future Research Approaches 8.11 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Impact of Climate Change on Vegetable Seed Production and Mitigation Strategies 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Climate Change, Plants, and Food Production 9.3 Vegetable Seed Production: A Climatic Perspective 9.4 Climate Change Versus Vegetable Seed Production 9.4.1 Effect of Temperature Fluctuations AND eCO2 9.4.2 Effect of Irregular Precipitation 9.4.3 Effect of Wind and Light 9.5 Approaches to Mitigate Climate Change Vis-À-Vis Vegetable Seed Production 9.6 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Kitchen Gardening for Nutritional Security Under Changing Climate 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Nutritional Security Under Changing Climatic Scenario 10.3 What Is a Kitchen Garden? 10.3.1 Why Make a Kitchen Garden 10.4 Role of Kitchen Garden 10.4.1 Role in Ensuring Food and Nutritional Security 10.4.2 Role in Generation of Income and Savings 10.4.3 Role as Shock Absorber in Food System and Alternative Source of Livelihood 10.4.4 Role in Curing Diseases 10.4.5 Role in Improvement of Nutrient Cycle, Ecological Balance and Biodiversity 10.4.6 Socio-Cultural and Aesthetic Role 10.4.7 Role in Empowerment of Women 10.5 Environmental Perspective of Kitchen Garden 10.5.1 Developing Eco-Literacy 10.5.2 Environmental Behaviour 10.5.3 Enhancing Resilience Against Direct and Indirect Effects of Shocks 10.6 Factors Affecting Kitchen Gardening (Table 10.2) 10.7 Case Study on Kitchen Gardening 10.7.1 Designing and Establishment of 200m2 Nutri-Garden Model 10.7.2 Kitchen Gardening in Uttarakhand, India 10.8 Constraints Faced During Kitchen Gardening Practices 10.9 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Protected Cultivation of High-Value Vegetable Crops Under Changing Climate 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Protected Cultivation 11.1.2 Scenario of Protected Cultivation in India and World 11.1.3 Need to Go for Protected Cultivation 11.2 Major Advantages of Protected Cultivation System 11.3 Components of the Protected Cultivation System 11.3.1 Agriculture Engineering 11.3.2 Crop Production Technology 11.4 Protected Structures for Vegetable Cultivation 11.4.1 Plastic Mulching 11.4.2 Plastic Low Tunnel 11.4.3 Walk–In-Tunnel 11.4.4 Insect Proof Nethouse 11.4.5 Shade Nethouse 11.4.6 Naturally Ventilated Green/Polyhouse 11.4.7 Polyhouse with Pad and Fan System 11.4.8 Hi-Tech or Climate Controlled Greenhouse 11.4.9 Retractable Roof Greenhouse 11.4.10 Rain Shelter 11.5 Classification of Green/Polyhouse Based on Cost 11.5.1 Low-Cost Green/Polyhouse 11.5.2 Medium Cost Green/Polyhouse 11.5.3 High-Cost Green/ Polyhouse 11.6 Protected Cultivation Technologies 11.6.1 Low Tunnel Technology 11.6.1.1 Off-Season Cucurbits Production with Low Tunnel Technology 11.6.1.2 Seedlings Raising of Cucurbits Under Low Tunnels for Off-Season 11.6.1.3 Seedling Transplanting of Cucurbits Under Low Tunnel 11.6.1.4 Seedlings Raising of Tomato, Chilli and Brinjal under Low Tunnel 11.6.1.5 Fertigation in Low Tunnels 11.6.1.6 Pollination under Low Tunnels 11.6.1.7 Harvesting and Crop Advancement under Low Tunnel 11.6.2 Hydroponics Technology 11.6.3 Aeroponics Technology 11.6.4 Microgreens: A Smart Food 11.6.5 Plug Tray Seedlings Raising Technology 11.6.6 Soilless Cultivation Technology 11.7 Vegetable Crops and their Varieties/Hybrids 11.7.1 Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) 11.7.2 Cherry Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme) 11.7.3 Capsicum (Capsicum annuum var. grossum L.) 11.7.3.1 Yellow Fruited 11.7.3.2 Red Fruited 11.7.3.3 Green Fruited 11.7.4 Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) 11.8 Crop Management and Operations 11.8.1 Nursery Raising 11.8.2 Preparation and Solarization of Bed 11.8.3 Fertilizer Application and Fertigation 11.8.4 Mulching 11.8.5 Spacing 11.8.6 Plant Canopy Architecture Management 11.8.6.1 Capsicum 11.8.6.2 Tomato 11.8.6.3 Cucumber 11.8.7 Harvesting and Yield 11.8.8 Diseases Management 11.8.8.1 Downy Mildew 11.8.8.2 Powdery Mildew (Erysiphe polygoni D.C.) 11.8.8.3 Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) 11.8.8.4 Mosaic Virus 11.8.8.5 Some Approaches for IDM Practices 11.8.8.5.1 Soil Solarization 11.8.8.5.2 Resistant or Tolerant Cultivars 11.8.9 Pest Management 11.8.9.1 Fruit Fly 11.8.9.2 White Fly 11.8.9.3 Nematode 11.8.9.4 Cutworms 11.8.9.5 Some Approaches for IPM Practices 11.8.9.5.1 Sticky Traps 11.8.9.5.2 Pheromones 11.8.9.5.3 Bio-Pesticides 11.8.9.5.4 Biological Control 11.8.9.5.5 Trap Cropping 11.8.10 CO2 Enrichment 11.8.11 Fruit Setting 11.9 Constraints in Protected Cultivation Systems 11.10 Opportunities in Protected Cultivation Technology 11.11 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Improvement of Vegetables Through Grafting in Changing Climate Scenario 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Environmental Stress 12.2.1 Flooding 12.2.2 Drought 12.2.3 Thermal Stress 12.2.4 Salinity Stress 12.3 Conclusion References Chapter 13: Improvement of Vegetables Through Molecular Breeding in Changing Climate Scenario 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Signal Transduction Mechanism Against Abiotic Stresses in Vegetable Crops 13.2.1 ROS and Calcium 13.2.2 Phospholipids, CDPKs and MAPKs 13.3 Salinity Tolerance in Vegetable Crops 13.4 Cold Tolerance in Vegetable Crops 13.5 Drought Tolerance in Vegetable Crops 13.6 Genomics of Major Vegetable Crops and Identification of Genes for Abiotic Stresses 13.7 Genome-Wide Association Analysis in Major Vegetable Crops for Abiotic Stresses 13.8 Genome Based Molecular Marker Discovery in Vegetable Breeding 13.9 Application of Transgenic and Gene-Editing Technology in Vegetable Breeding 13.10 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Emerging Insect-Pests of Vegetables Due to Changing Climate 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Vegetables in Climate Change Scenario 14.3 Insect-Pests and Climate Change 14.3.1 Crop Production Influenced by Climate Change in Three Ways 14.3.2 Directs Effects of Climate Change on Insect-Pests 14.3.2.1 Effect on Population Growth Rate 14.3.2.2 Effect on Migrating Behavior and Habitat Ranges 14.3.2.3 Effect on Overwintering or Resting Periods 14.3.2.4 Effect on Abundance and Biodiversity 14.4 Indirect Effects of Climate Change on Insects through Host Plants 14.4.1 Effect on Host Plant and Insect Pest Synchrony 14.4.2 Effect of Increased CO2 on Host Plants 14.4.3 Increased Temperature and Insect-Pests 14.4.4 Precipitation Pattern and Insect-Pests 14.4.5 Combined Effect of Elevated CO2 and Temperature on Insect-Pests 14.4.6 Effect on Host Plant Distribution 14.5 The Impacts of Climate Change on Insect-Pests May Include 14.6 Impact of Climate Change and Insect-Pests 14.6.1 Rising Temperature 14.6.1.1 Changes in Insect-Pests Diversity 14.6.1.2 Extension of Geographical Areas 14.6.1.3 Changes in Insect Phenology 14.6.1.4 Increased Hibernating Existence 14.6.1.5 Increase in Number of Generations 14.6.1.6 Introduction of Invasive Alien Species 14.6.1.7 Outbreaks and Population Dynamics of Insect Pests 14.6.1.8 Crop-Pest Exchanges 14.6.1.9 Augmented Occurrence of Hexapod Vectored Diseases of Plant 14.7 Tactics to Alleviate the Bad Effects of Climate Change 14.8 Conclusion References Chapter 15: Emerging Diseases of Vegetables Due to Changing Climate 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Effect of Changing Climate on Soil Flora and Fauna 15.3 Effect of Climate Change on Geographical Distribution of Vegetable Diseases 15.4 Implications of Changing Climate on Diseases of Vegetable Crops 15.4.1 Impact of Climate Change on Fungal diseases of Vegetable Crops 15.4.2 Impact of Climate Change on Bacterial Diseases of Vegetable Crops 15.4.3 Impact Climate Change on Viral Diseases of Vegetable Crops 15.4.4 Impact of Climate Change on Nematode Diseases of Vegetable Crops 15.4.5 Impact on Climate Change on Phytoplasma Diseases of Vegetable Crops 15.4.6 Impact of Changing Climate on Abiotic Diseases and Disease Complexes in Vegetables 15.4.7 Impact of Changing Climate on Historical Emerging Diseases of Vegetables 15.5 Mitigation of Effects of Climate Change on Diseases of Vegetables 15.6 Crop Protection Strategies Under Changing Climatic Scenario 15.7 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Impact of Climate Change on Postharvest Quality of Vegetables 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Components of Climate Change Triggering the Postharvest Quality of Vegetables 16.2.1 Elevated Temperature 16.2.2 Changes in Rainfall Patterns 16.2.3 Elevation of Carbon Dioxide Concentration 16.2.4 Extreme Weather Events 16.3 The Impact of Climate Change Factors on Postharvest Quality of Vegetables 16.3.1 Effect of Changing or Elevated Temperature 16.3.2 Effect of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Concentration 16.3.3 Effect of Ozone (O3) Concentration 16.3.4 Effect of Salinity 16.3.5 Drought and Waterlogging 16.3.6 Ultraviolet Radiations 16.3.7 Biotic Stresses on Vegetable Crops 16.3.8 Postharvest Losses of Vegetables 16.4 The Possible Mitigation Strategies 16.5 Conclusion References Index