Ethics for the Information Age, 7th Edition

Description

The New Normal: Evaluating Social and Ethical Concerns in the Information Age. New technologies have brought us many benefits, but they have also raised many social and ethical concerns. The authors view in Ethics for the Information Age is that we ought to approach every new technology in a thoughtful manner, considering not just its short-term benefits, but also how its long-term use will affect our lives. A thoughtful response to information technology requires a basic understanding of its history, an awareness of current information-technology- related issues, and a familiarity with ethics. In the Seventh Edition, Quinn provides an impartial look at the problems technology both solves and creates. As in previous editions, he presents information in a manner that leads you to arrive at your own conclusions on crucial ethics questions. Weaving in a vital dose of IT history, the new topics keep the book relevant and can function as either a sole reference or a supplemental guide for computer ethics courses. Ethics for the information age......Page 3 Ethics for the information age......Page 4 Brief Contents......Page 7 Contents......Page 9 Preface......Page 34 What’s New in the Seventh Edition......Page 35 Organization of the Book......Page 37 Note to Instructors......Page 40 Feedback......Page 42 Chapter 1 Catalysts for Change......Page 47 1.1 Introduction......Page 50 1.2.1 Aids to Manual Calculating......Page 57 1.2.2 Mechanical Calculators......Page 58 1.2.3 Cash Register......Page 63 1.2.4 Punched-Card Tabulation......Page 64 1.2.5 Precursors of Commercial Computers......Page 68 1.2.6 First Commercial Computers......Page 70 1.2.7 Programming Languages and Time-Sharing......Page 74 1.2.8 Transistor and Integrated Circuit......Page 76 1.2.9 IBM System/360......Page 78 1.2.10 Microprocessor......Page 80 1.2.11 Personal Computer......Page 82 1.3 Milestones in Networking......Page 88 1.3.1 Electricity and Electromagnetism......Page 89 1.3.2 Telegraph......Page 91 1.3.3 Telephone......Page 92 1.3.5 Radio......Page 96 1.3.6 Television......Page 98 1.3.7 Remote Computing......Page 100 1.3.8 ARPANET......Page 101 1.3.9 Email......Page 102 1.3.10 Internet......Page 104 1.3.11 NSFNET......Page 105 1.3.13 Wireless Networks......Page 106 1.4.1 Greek Alphabet......Page 108 1.4.2 Codex and Paper......Page 109 1.4.3 Gutenberg’s Printing Press......Page 110 1.4.4 Newspapers......Page 111 1.4.5 Hypertext......Page 112 1.4.6 Graphical User Interface......Page 113 1.4.7 Single-Computer Hypertext Systems......Page 116 1.4.8 Networked Hypertext: World Wide Web......Page 117 1.4.9 Search Engines......Page 118 1.5 Information Technology Issues......Page 121 Summary......Page 125 Further Reading and Viewing......Page 127 Review Questions......Page 129 Discussion Questions......Page 131 In-Class Exercises......Page 133 References......Page 135 An Interview with Dalton Conley......Page 142 Chapter 2 Introduction to Ethics......Page 146 2.1 Introduction......Page 147 2.1.1 Defining Terms......Page 149 2.1.2 Four Scenarios......Page 152 Questions......Page 153 Questions......Page 154 Questions......Page 155 Questions......Page 156 2.1.3 Overview of Ethical Theories......Page 158 2.2.1 The Case for Subjective Relativism......Page 161 2.2.2 The Case against Subjective Relativism......Page 162 2.3 Cultural Relativism......Page 165 2.3.1 The Case for Cultural Relativism......Page 166 2.3.2 The Case against Cultural Relativism......Page 167 2.4 Divine Command Theory......Page 172 2.4.2 The Case against the Divine Command Theory......Page 174 2.5 Ethical Egoism......Page 178 2.5.1 The Case for Ethical Egoism......Page 179 2.5.2 The Case against Ethical Egoism......Page 180 2.6.1 Good Will and the Categorical Imperative......Page 183 2.6.2 Evaluating a Scenario Using Kantianism......Page 188 Analysis......Page 189 2.6.3 The Case for Kantianism......Page 190 2.6.4 The Case against Kantianism......Page 191 2.7.1 Principle of Utility......Page 194 Analysis......Page 197 Commentary......Page 198 2.7.3 The Case for Act Utilitarianism......Page 199 2.7.4 The Case against Act Utilitarianism......Page 200 2.8.1 Basis of Rule Utilitarianism......Page 204 2.8.2 Evaluating a Scenario Using Rule Utilitarianism......Page 205 Analysis......Page 206 2.8.3 The Case for Rule Utilitarianism......Page 207 2.8.4 The Case against Utilitarianism in General......Page 209 2.9.1 The Social Contract......Page 212 2.9.2 Rawls’s Theory of Justice......Page 215 Analysis......Page 220 2.9.4 The Case for Social Contract Theory......Page 221 2.9.5 The Case against Social Contract Theory......Page 223 2.10.1 Virtues and Vices......Page 226 2.10.2 Making a Decision Using Virtue Ethics......Page 230 Decision......Page 232 2.10.3 The Case for Virtue Ethics......Page 233 2.10.4 The Case against Virtue Ethics......Page 235 2.11 Comparing Workable Ethical Theories......Page 237 2.12 Morality of Breaking the Law......Page 239 2.12.1 Social Contract Theory Perspective......Page 241 2.12.2 Kantian Perspective......Page 242 2.12.4 Act Utilitarian Perspective......Page 243 2.12.5 Conclusion......Page 245 Summary......Page 246 Further Reading and Viewing......Page 249 Review Questions......Page 250 Discussion Questions......Page 253 In-Class Exercises......Page 256 References......Page 258 An Interview with James Moor......Page 262 Chapter 3 Networked Communications......Page 269 3.1 Introduction......Page 270 3.2.1 The Spam Epidemic......Page 273 3.2.2 Need for Social-Technical Solutions......Page 276 3.2.3 Case Study: Ann the Acme Accountant......Page 277 Kantian Analysis......Page 278 Act Utilitarian Analysis......Page 279 Social Contract Theory Analysis......Page 280 Virtue Ethics Analysis......Page 281 Summary......Page 282 3.3.1 The World Wide Web......Page 284 3.3.3 How We Use the Internet......Page 285 3.4.1 Transforming Lives in Developing Countries......Page 291 3.4.2 Twitter......Page 292 3.4.4 Political Activism......Page 293 3.5 Censorship......Page 295 3.5.1 Direct Censorship......Page 296 3.5.2 Self-Censorship......Page 297 3.5.3 Challenges Posed by the Internet......Page 298 3.5.4 Government Filtering and Surveillance of Internet Content......Page 299 Kant’s Views on Censorship......Page 301 Mill’s Views on Censorship......Page 302 Mill’s Principle of Harm......Page 303 3.6.1 History......Page 305 3.6.2 Freedom of Expression Not an Absolute Right......Page 308 3.6.3 FCC v. Pacifica Foundation......Page 309 3.6.4 Case Study: Kate’s Blog......Page 311 Act Utilitarian Analysis......Page 312 Virtue Ethics Analysis......Page 314 Summary......Page 315 3.7.1 Web Filters......Page 316 3.7.2 Child Internet Protection Act......Page 317 3.7.3 Ethical Evaluations of CIPA......Page 318 Act Utilitarian Evaluation......Page 319 Social Contract Theory Evaluation......Page 321 3.7.4 Sexting......Page 322 3.8.1 Identity Theft......Page 325 3.8.2 Fake Reviews......Page 328 3.8.3 Online Predators......Page 329 Utilitarian Analysis......Page 331 Kantian Analysis......Page 332 Social Contract Theory Analysis......Page 333 3.8.5 False Information......Page 334 3.8.6 Cyberbullying......Page 336 3.8.7 Revenge Porn......Page 339 3.9.1 Is Internet Addiction Real?......Page 341 3.9.3 Ethical Evaluation of Internet Addiction......Page 345 Summary......Page 347 Further Reading and Viewing......Page 350 Review Questions......Page 352 Discussion Questions......Page 353 In-Class Exercises......Page 359 References......Page 361 An Interview with Michael Liebhold......Page 376 Chapter 4 Intellectual Property......Page 381 4.1 Introduction......Page 382 4.2 Intellectual Property Rights......Page 385 4.2.1 Property Rights......Page 387 4.2.2 Extending the Argument to Intellectual Property......Page 389 4.2.3 Benefits of Intellectual Property Protection......Page 393 4.2.4 Limits to Intellectual Property Protection......Page 394 4.3.1 Trade Secrets......Page 399 4.3.2 Trademarks and Service Marks......Page 401 Polaroid v. Kodak......Page 403 4.3.4 Copyrights......Page 404 Gershwin Publishing v. Columbia Artists......Page 405 Davey Jones Locker......Page 406 Copyright Creep......Page 407 4.3.5 Case Study: The Database Guru......Page 410 Kantian Evaluations......Page 413 Act Utilitarian Evaluations......Page 414 Virtue Ethics Evaluation......Page 417 Conclusion......Page 418 4.4 Fair Use......Page 420 4.4.1 Sony v. Universal City Studios......Page 423 4.4.3 RIAA v. Diamond Multimedia......Page 426 4.4.4 Kelly v. Arriba Soft......Page 427 4.4.5 Authors Guild v. Google......Page 429 4.4.6 Mashups......Page 431 4.5 Digital Media......Page 433 4.5.2 Digital Millennium Copyright Act......Page 434 4.5.3 Secure Digital Music Initiative......Page 435 4.5.4 Sony BMG Music Entertainment Rootkit......Page 436 4.5.5 Criticisms of Digital Rights Management......Page 437 4.5.6 Online Music Stores Drop Digital Rights Management......Page 438 4.5.7 Microsoft Xbox One......Page 439 4.6.1 RIAA Lawsuits against Napster, Grokster, and Kazaa......Page 441 4.6.2 MGM v. Grokster......Page 445 4.6.3 BitTorrent......Page 448 4.6.4 Legal Action against the Pirate Bay......Page 450 4.6.5 PRO-IP Act......Page 451 4.6.6 Megaupload Shutdown......Page 452 4.6.7 Legal Online Access to Entertainment......Page 453 4.7.1 Software Copyrights......Page 455 4.7.2 Violations of Software Copyrights......Page 456 Sega v. Accolade......Page 457 4.7.3 Safe Software Development......Page 458 4.7.4 Software Patents......Page 459 Origins of Software Patents......Page 460 Patent-Holding Companies......Page 461 Harms From Too Many Software Patents......Page 462 Smartphone Patent Wars......Page 463 US Supreme Court Decisions......Page 464 4.8 Legitimacy of Intellectual Property Protection for Software......Page 465 4.8.1 Rights-Based Analysis......Page 466 4.8.2 Utilitarian Analysis......Page 467 4.8.3 Conclusion......Page 470 4.9 Open-Source Software......Page 471 4.9.1 Consequences of Proprietary Software......Page 472 4.9.2 “Open Source” Definition......Page 473 4.9.3 Beneficial Consequences of Open-Source Software......Page 474 4.9.4 Examples of Open-Source Software......Page 476 4.9.5 The GNU Project and Linux......Page 477 4.9.6 Impact of Open-Source Software......Page 479 4.10 Creative Commons......Page 481 Summary......Page 487 Further Reading and Viewing......Page 490 Review Questions......Page 492 Discussion Questions......Page 494 In-Class Exercises......Page 496 References......Page 497 An Interview with June Besek......Page 514 Chapter 5 Information Privacy......Page 520 5.1 Introduction......Page 521 5.2.1 Defining Privacy......Page 524 Harms of Privacy......Page 526 Benefits of Privacy......Page 527 5.2.3 Is There a Natural Right to Privacy?......Page 530 Privacy Rights Evolve From Property Rights......Page 531 Warren And Brandeis: Clearly, People Have a Right To Privacy......Page 532 Thomson: Every “Privacy Right” Violation is a Violation Of Another Right......Page 535 Autonomous Moral Agents Need Some Privacy......Page 536 5.2.4 Privacy and Trust......Page 537 5.2.5 Case Study: The New Parents......Page 539 Social Contract Theory Evaluation......Page 540 Kantian Evaluation......Page 541 Summary......Page 542 5.3 Information Disclosures......Page 543 5.3.1 Facebook Tags......Page 546 5.3.2 Enhanced 911 Services......Page 547 5.3.3 Rewards or Loyalty Programs......Page 548 5.3.4 Body Scanners......Page 551 5.3.5 RFID Tags......Page 552 5.3.7 Mobile Apps......Page 554 5.3.8 OnStar......Page 555 5.3.9 Automobile “Black Boxes”......Page 556 5.3.10 Medical Records......Page 557 5.3.12 Cookies and Flash Cookies......Page 558 5.4.1 Data Mining Defined......Page 560 Google’s Personalized Search......Page 561 5.4.2 Opt-In versus Opt-Out Policies......Page 562 5.4.3 Examples of Data Mining......Page 565 Targeting Pregnant Women......Page 566 Credit Reports......Page 567 Targeted Direct Mail And Data Brokers......Page 568 5.4.4 Social Network Analysis......Page 570 Netflix Prize......Page 572 AOL Search Dataset......Page 573 5.5.1 Marketplace: Households......Page 575 5.5.2 Facebook Beacon......Page 576 5.5.3 Malls Track Shoppers’ Cell Phones......Page 578 5.5.4 iPhone Apps Uploading Address Books......Page 579 5.5.5 Instagram’s Proposed Change to Terms of Service......Page 580 Summary......Page 582 Further Reading and Viewing......Page 584 Review Questions......Page 586 Discussion Questions......Page 587 In-Class Exercises......Page 591 References......Page 593 An Interview with Michael Zimmer......Page 604 Chapter 6 Privacy and the Government......Page 611 6.1 Introduction......Page 612 6.2.1 Employee Polygraph Protection Act......Page 616 6.2.3 Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act......Page 617 6.3.1 Census Records......Page 618 6.3.3 FBI National Crime Information Center 2000......Page 621 6.3.4 OneDOJ Database......Page 625 6.3.5 Closed-Circuit Television Cameras......Page 626 6.3.6 License Plate Scanners......Page 628 6.3.7 Police Drones......Page 629 6.4 Covert Government Surveillance......Page 632 Olmstead v. United States......Page 633 Congress Makes Wiretapping Illegal......Page 634 FBI Continues Secret Wiretapping......Page 635 Charles Katz v. United States......Page 636 6.4.2 Operation Shamrock......Page 637 6.4.3 Carnivore Surveillance System......Page 638 NSA Wiretapping......Page 639 TALON Database......Page 640 6.5.1 Title III......Page 642 6.5.2 Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act......Page 643 6.5.3 Electronic Communications Privacy Act......Page 644 6.5.4 Stored Communications Act......Page 645 6.5.5 Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act......Page 646 6.6.1 Provisions of the Patriot Act......Page 648 6.6.2 National Security Letters......Page 650 6.6.3 Responses to the Patriot Act......Page 651 6.6.4 Successes and Failures......Page 654 6.6.5 Long-Standing NSA Access to Telephone Records......Page 656 6.7.1 Code of Fair Information Practices......Page 659 6.7.2 Privacy Act of 1974......Page 662 6.7.3 Fair Credit Reporting Act......Page 663 6.7.4 Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act......Page 664 6.7.5 Financial Services Modernization Act......Page 665 6.8.1 Internal Revenue Service Audits......Page 666 6.8.2 Syndromic Surveillance Systems......Page 667 6.8.4 Predictive Policing......Page 668 6.8.5 Potential Harms of Profiling......Page 669 6.9.1 History and Role of the Social Security Number......Page 671 6.9.2 Debate over a National ID Card......Page 673 6.9.3 The REAL ID Act......Page 676 6.10.1 Family Education Rights and Privacy Act......Page 679 6.10.3 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act......Page 680 6.10.5 Tollbooth Records Used in Court......Page 682 6.11.1 Telemarketing......Page 684 6.11.2 Loud Television Commercials......Page 685 6.11.4 Advanced Imaging Technology Scanners......Page 686 Summary......Page 690 Further Reading and Viewing......Page 692 Review Questions......Page 693 Discussion Questions......Page 695 In-Class Exercises......Page 698 References......Page 699 An Interview with Jerry Berman......Page 713 Chapter 7 Computer and Network Security......Page 720 7.1 Introduction......Page 721 7.2.1 Hackers, Past and Present......Page 723 7.2.2 Penalties for Hacking......Page 727 7.2.3 Selected Hacking Incidents......Page 728 7.2.4 Case Study: Firesheep......Page 729 Act Utilitarian Analysis......Page 732 Virtue Ethics Analysis......Page 733 Kantian Analysis......Page 734 7.3.1 Viruses......Page 736 Background of Robert Tappan Morris Jr.......Page 741 Designing the Worm......Page 743 Launching the Worm......Page 745 Ethical Evaluation......Page 747 7.3.3 Sasser......Page 749 7.3.4 Instant Messaging Worms......Page 750 7.3.6 Cross-Site Scripting......Page 751 7.3.8 Trojan Horses and Backdoor Trojans......Page 752 7.3.10 Spyware and Adware......Page 753 7.3.11 Bots and Botnets......Page 754 7.3.12 Defensive Measures......Page 755 7.4.1 Phishing and Spear Phishing......Page 757 7.4.2 SQL Injection......Page 758 7.4.4 Cyber Crime......Page 759 Pharmamaster......Page 761 7.4.5 Politically Motivated Cyber Attacks......Page 763 Estonia (2007)......Page 764 Georgia (2008)......Page 765 Exiled Tibetan Government (2009)......Page 766 Iran (2009)......Page 767 Anonymous......Page 770 7.5.1 Motivation for Online Voting......Page 774 7.5.2 Proposals......Page 775 Benefits of Online Voting......Page 777 Risks of Online Voting......Page 778 Utilitarian Analysis......Page 780 Conclusions......Page 781 Summary......Page 783 Further Reading and Viewing......Page 785 Review Questions......Page 786 Discussion Questions......Page 787 In-Class Exercises......Page 790 References......Page 793 An Interview with Matt Bishop......Page 806 Chapter 8 Computer Reliability......Page 812 8.1 Introduction......Page 813 8.2.2 False Arrests......Page 815 8.2.3 Utilitarian Analysis: Accuracy of NCIC Records......Page 816 8.3.1 Errors Leading to System Malfunctions......Page 820 8.3.2 Errors Leading to System Failures......Page 821 8.3.3 Analysis: E-retailer Posts Wrong Price, Refuses to Deliver......Page 825 8.4 Notable Software System Failures......Page 827 8.4.1 Patriot Missile......Page 828 8.4.2 Ariane 5......Page 830 8.4.3 AT&T Long-Distance Network......Page 831 8.4.4 Robot Missions to Mars......Page 834 8.4.5 Denver International Airport......Page 835 8.4.6 Tokyo Stock Exchange......Page 838 8.4.7 Direct-Recording Electronic Voting Machines......Page 839 8.5 Therac-25......Page 846 8.5.1 Genesis of the Therac-25......Page 847 Marietta, Georgia, June 1985......Page 848 First AECL Investigation, July–September 1985......Page 849 Tyler, Texas, March 1986......Page 850 Tyler, Texas, April 1986......Page 852 8.5.3 Software Errors......Page 853 8.5.4 Postmortem......Page 857 8.5.5 Moral Responsibility of the Therac-25 Team......Page 859 8.5.6 Postscript......Page 860 8.6.1 Uses of Simulation......Page 861 8.6.2 Validating Simulations......Page 864 8.7 Software Engineering......Page 868 8.7.2 Development......Page 869 8.7.3 Validation......Page 871 8.7.4 Evolution......Page 873 8.7.5 Improvement in Software Quality......Page 874 8.7.6 Gender Bias......Page 875 8.8.1 Shrink-Wrap Warranties......Page 878 8.8.2 Are Software Warranties Enforceable?......Page 880 Step-Saver Data Systems v. Wyse Technology and the Software Link......Page 881 Procd Inc. v. Zeidenberg......Page 883 Mortenson v. Timberline Software......Page 884 8.8.3 Should Software Be Considered a Product?......Page 885 8.8.4 Case Study: Incredible Bulk......Page 886 Ethical Analysis......Page 887 Summary......Page 888 Further Reading and Viewing......Page 893 Review Questions......Page 894 Discussion Questions......Page 896 In-Class Exercises......Page 898 References......Page 900 An Interview with Avi Rubin......Page 909 Chapter 9 Professional Ethics......Page 914 9.1 Introduction......Page 915 9.2.1 Characteristics of a Fully Developed Profession......Page 918 9.2.2 Case Study: Certified Public Accountants......Page 921 9.2.3 How Do Computer-Related Careers Stack Up?......Page 922 Status of Certification and Licensing......Page 923 Ability to Harm the Public......Page 924 Preamble......Page 926 Principle 1: Public......Page 929 Principle 2: Client and Employer......Page 931 Principle 4: Judgment......Page 933 Principle 5: Management......Page 935 Principle 6: Profession......Page 937 Principle 8: Self......Page 939 9.4.1 Preamble......Page 942 9.4.2 Alternative List of Fundamental Principles......Page 943 9.5 Case Studies......Page 947 9.5.1 Software Recommendation......Page 948 9.5.2 Child Pornography......Page 950 9.5.3 Antiworm......Page 952 9.5.4 Consulting Opportunity......Page 955 9.6 Whistle-Blowing......Page 960 9.6.1 Morton Thiokol/NASA......Page 961 9.6.2 Hughes Aircraft......Page 964 9.6.3 US Legislation Related to Whistle-Blowing......Page 967 9.6.4 Morality of Whistle-Blowing......Page 968 Whistle-Blowing is a Sign of Organizational Failure......Page 970 Whistle-Blowing as a Moral Duty......Page 971 Summary......Page 976 Further Reading and Viewing......Page 979 Review Questions......Page 980 Discussion Questions......Page 981 In-Class Exercises......Page 986 References......Page 989 An Interview with Paul Axtell......Page 993 Chapter 10 Work and Wealth......Page 1000 10.1 Introduction......Page 1001 10.2.1 Automation and Job Destruction......Page 1003 Lost Manufacturing Jobs......Page 1004 Lost White-Collar Jobs......Page 1005 Working Harder, Making Less......Page 1006 10.2.2 Automation and Job Creation......Page 1008 Increased Purchasing Power......Page 1009 10.2.3 Effects of Increase in Productivity......Page 1010 Protestant Work Ethic......Page 1011 10.2.4 Case Study: The Canceled Vacation......Page 1013 Kantian/Social Contract Theory Evaluation......Page 1014 Act Utilitarian Evaluation......Page 1015 Summary......Page 1016 10.2.5 Rise of the Robots?......Page 1017 10.3.1 Organizational Changes......Page 1024 10.3.2 Telework......Page 1027 Advantages of Telework......Page 1028 Disadvantages of Telework......Page 1029 10.3.3 The Gig Economy......Page 1031 10.3.4 Monitoring......Page 1033 10.3.5 Multinational Teams......Page 1035 10.4 Globalization......Page 1037 10.4.2 Arguments against Globalization......Page 1038 10.4.3 Dot-Com Bust Increases IT Sector Unemployment......Page 1041 10.4.4 Foreign Workers in the American IT Industry......Page 1042 10.4.5 Foreign Competition......Page 1044 10.5 The Digital Divide......Page 1046 10.5.1 Global Divide......Page 1047 10.5.2 Social Divide......Page 1049 10.5.3 Models of Technological Diffusion......Page 1050 10.5.4 Critiques of the Digital Divide......Page 1052 10.5.5 Massive Open Online Courses......Page 1055 10.5.6 Net Neutrality......Page 1056 10.6 The “Winner-Take-All” Society......Page 1059 10.6.1 Harmful Effects of Winner-Take-All......Page 1061 10.6.2 Reducing Winner-Take-All Effects......Page 1065 Summary......Page 1067 Further Reading and Viewing......Page 1071 Review Questions......Page 1073 Discussion Questions......Page 1074 In-Class Exercises......Page 1077 References......Page 1080 An Interview with Martin Ford......Page 1090 Appendix A Plagiarism......Page 1099 Consequences of Plagiarism......Page 1100 Types of Plagiarism......Page 1101 Guidelines for Citing Sources......Page 1102 How to Avoid Plagiarism......Page 1103 Misuse of Sources......Page 1104 Additional Information......Page 1105 References......Page 1106 Index......Page 1107 Numbers......Page 1108 A......Page 1109 B......Page 1116 C......Page 1121 D......Page 1131 E......Page 1136 F......Page 1141 G......Page 1146 H......Page 1151 I......Page 1154 J......Page 1161 K......Page 1164 L......Page 1167 M......Page 1170 N......Page 1177 O......Page 1182 P......Page 1185 Q......Page 1194 R......Page 1195 S......Page 1200 T......Page 1211 U......Page 1216 V......Page 1219 W......Page 1221 X......Page 1226 Y......Page 1227 Z......Page 1228