Syria: From National Independence to Proxy War

Description

Contents......Page 5 Notes on Contributors......Page 7 Abbreviations......Page 9 List of Figures......Page 12 List of Tables......Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction: Syria in the Imperialist Cyclone......Page 14 Leading Indicators of Syria’s Descent......Page 17 Global Imbalances and Syria......Page 23 The Syria Debate......Page 24 War as a Value Relationship......Page 25 Purpose and Structure of This Endeavour......Page 28 Bibliography......Page 37 Part I: A Historical Perspective of the Syrian Conflict......Page 39 A Historical Sociology Lens for Understanding the Syrian Conflict......Page 40 The Junctures of the Syrian Conflict’s Trajectory......Page 41 Historical Context......Page 42 State Formation Under Hafez al-Asad: Neo-patrimonial Regime Consolidation......Page 43 Syria Under Bashar al-Asad......Page 45 Juncture 1: The Spread of the Arab Uprisings to Syria......Page 47 Juncture 2: The Failure of Non-violent Protest to Enable Democratic Transition......Page 49 Juncture 3: Failure of Revolution from Below......Page 51 Juncture 4: Toward Proxy War: Between Failed Revolution and Failed Counter-insurgency......Page 54 Features of State Failure......Page 56 Competitive Regime Formation......Page 57 Trans-state Spillover and State Remaking......Page 59 Conclusion......Page 60 Bibliography......Page 61 The Old Struggle for Syria......Page 64 Parallels with Today......Page 66 Contrast with the Reign of Hafez al-Asad......Page 68 The Struggle as a Mirror of the State......Page 73 Differences Between the Old and the New Struggle for Syria......Page 75 Concluding Remarks: From Old to New......Page 78 Bibliography......Page 79 Introduction......Page 82 The Generation of Social Cleavages......Page 84 Parliamentary Democracy (April 1946–March 1963)......Page 88 One-Party Authoritarian Rule (March 1963–November 1970)......Page 91 Authoritarianism Based on “Two-Tier Power Structure” (November 1970 Onwards)......Page 94 The Pitfall Surrounding Social Cleavages......Page 98 Bibliography......Page 101 Part II: Macroeconomy and Society......Page 104 Introduction......Page 105 A Snapshot of Syria’s Macroeconomy During 2000–2010......Page 106 Fiscal Policy......Page 108 Income Disparity Between Wage Earners......Page 112 Monetary Policy......Page 113 Trade and Capital Account Policies......Page 115 A Synthesis of Macroeconomic Performance......Page 117 Concluding Remarks: Syria in Conflict......Page 119 Bibliography......Page 121 Introduction......Page 124 Socioeconomic Development in Modern Syria......Page 125 Sectoral Development......Page 127 Syria’s Human Development Index......Page 129 Enlarged Poverty......Page 130 Economic Loss......Page 131 Structural Changes......Page 132 Demand Deterioration......Page 133 Fiscal Policy......Page 134 Population Dispersion......Page 135 Diminishing Human Development Dimensions......Page 136 Expanded Poverty......Page 137 Concluding Remarks: Towards an Alternative Scenario......Page 138 Bibliography......Page 139 Introduction......Page 141 Revolution from a Distance......Page 144 Exams and the Future......Page 145 A New Tradition......Page 149 Revolutionary Subjectivity11......Page 154 Conclusion: Labour Migration Pattern—From Consent to Coercion?......Page 158 Bibliography......Page 164 Part III: The Politics of the Syrian Conflict......Page 167 Introduction......Page 168 Syria’s ‘Strategic Balance’ with Israel......Page 170 Hafez al-Asad’s Regional and International Balancing Strategy......Page 172 Hafez al-Asad’s Balancing of Domestic Threats......Page 173 Succession and Foreign Policy Under Bashar al-Asad......Page 175 A Building Storm During Bashar al-Asad’s Rule......Page 176 Syria in the ‘Resistance Front’......Page 178 The ‘Resistance Front’ in the Syrian Uprising......Page 180 Conclusion......Page 183 Bibliography......Page 188 Part IV: Sectoral Analysis......Page 190 Introduction......Page 191 Political Economy Background and the Health Sector......Page 192 The Impact of Neoliberal Policies on the Health Sector......Page 196 Health Services in Pre-conflict Syria......Page 198 Official Narrative of the Health Sector’s Modernisation Programme (2003–2010)......Page 202 The Impact of the Modernisation Programme on Syria’s Health Sector......Page 204 Current Crisis......Page 206 Bibliography......Page 209 Introduction......Page 214 Putting Ba’athism and Revolution in World-Systemic Perspective......Page 216 The Early and Mid-Ba’athist Social Compact......Page 218 Early Stages of Thermidor: Confrontation with Israel and the Geopolitical Origins of the Ba’ath’s Corrective Movement......Page 223 Thermidor and Petrodollars in Syria......Page 224 Rural Ba’athism: The Growth of Capitalist Middle Peasants (1963–2000)......Page 226 Further Dynamics of Rural Capitalism......Page 229 Food Security and State Embedding Through Pricing Policy: Further Dynamics of Rural Capitalist Growth......Page 233 Rural Immiseration in Syria and the Erosion of the Populist Pact......Page 236 Social Consequences: Drought to Uprising......Page 237 Conclusion......Page 241 Bibliography......Page 247 Chapter 11: Syria’s Food Security: From Self-Sufficiency to Hunger as a Weapon......Page 251 The Socialist Objective of Promoting Food Self-Sufficiency......Page 252 Self-Sufficiency Through Subsidies (A Costly Policy)......Page 253 Private Sector Production and Market......Page 254 Syria’s Bread Basket: The Jazira Region......Page 255 Water Mismanagement......Page 256 Agrarian Relations: Law 56 of 2004......Page 257 The Effects of the Drought on Production and Livelihoods (2006–2010)......Page 258 Syria’s Agricultural Geography During War......Page 260 Syria Agricultural Production Under War......Page 263 Hunger as a Weapon of War......Page 265 Food Production in Besieged Areas and Coping Mechanisms......Page 266 Conclusion......Page 267 Bibliography......Page 268 Chapter 12: Conclusion: China’s Role in Syria’s National Security......Page 272 War Implications......Page 277 Chinese Outward Investment Plans in Conflict Syria......Page 279 Concluding Remarks......Page 285 Bibliography......Page 287 Index......Page 292