Advanced Piezoelectric Materials: Science and Technology

Description

Advanced Piezoelectric Materials: Science and Technology, Second Edition, provides revised, expanded, and updated content suitable for those researching piezoelectric materials or using them to develop new devices in areas such as microelectronics, optical, sound, structural, and biomedical engineering. Three new chapters cover multilayer technologies with base-metal internal electrodes, templated grain growth preparation techniques for manufacturing piezoelectric single crystals, and piezoelectric MEMS technologies. Chapters from the first edition have been revised in order to provide up-to-date, comprehensive coverage of developments in the field. Part One covers the structure and properties of a range of piezoelectric materials. Part Two details advanced manufacturing processes for particular materials and device types, including three new chapters. Finally, Part Three covers materials development for three key applications of piezoelectric materials. Dr. Kenji Uchino is a pioneer in piezoelectric actuators, Professor of Electrical Engineering at Penn State University, and Director of the International Center for Actuators and Transducers. He has authored 550 papers, 54 books and 26 patents in the ceramic actuator area. Cover Front Matter Copyright Contributors Preface Acknowledgements The Development of Piezoelectric Materials and the New Perspective The History of Piezoelectrics The Dawn of Piezoelectrics World War I-Underwater Acoustic Devices With Quartz and Rochelle Salt World War II-Discovery of Barium Titanate Discovery of PZT PZT Clevite Corporation Murata Manufacturing Company Ternary System Lithium Niobate/Tantalate Relaxor Ferroelectrics-Ceramics and Single Crystals Polyvinylidene Difluoride Pb-Free Piezoelectrics Composites Composite Effects Magnetoelectric Composites Piezoelectric Dampers Other Piezoelectric-Related Materials Photostrictive Materials Monomorphs Piezoelectric Materials-Present Status Piezoelectric Figures of Merit Piezoelectric Strain Constant d Piezoelectric Voltage Constant g Electromechanical Coupling Factor k Mechanical Quality Factor QM Acoustic Impedance Z Piezoelectric Resonance20 The Piezoelectric Constitutive Equations Electromechanical Coupling Factor Longitudinal Vibration Mode Overview of Piezoelectric Materials49 Single Crystals Polycrystalline Materials Relaxor Ferroelectrics Polymers Composites Thin-Films Thin Film Preparation Technique MEMS Application Constraints in Thin/Thick Films Piezoelectric Devices-Brief Review of Applications Pressure Sensors/Accelerometers/Gyroscopes Piezoelectric Vibrators/Ultrasonic Transducers Piezoelectric Vibrators Ultrasonic Transducers Resonators/Filters SAW Devices Micromass Sensor Biosensor Viscosity Sensor Piezoelectric Transformers Piezoelectric Actuators Actuator Designs Drive/Control Techniques Servo Displacement Transducers Pulse Drive Motors Ultrasonic Motors Classification and Principles of USMs Standing Wave-Type Motors Propagating Wave-Type Motors Smooth Impact Drive Mechanism Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting Piezoelectric Passive Damping to Energy Harvesting High Energy Harvesting (W) Low-Energy Harvesting (mW) Future Perspectives of Piezoelectrics Performance to Reliability Pb-Free Piezoelectrics Biodegradable Polymer Low-Loss Piezoelectrics Hard to Soft Elastomer Actuators Electrostrictive Polymers 1:3 PZT Composites Large Strain Ceramics Macro to Nano Homo to Hetero Single to Multifunctional Magnetoelectric Effect Photostriction References Lead Zirconate Titanate-Based Piezoceramics Introduction Crystalline Structure and Phase Relations Compositional Modifications Effect of the Microstructure on the Piezoelectric Response in PZT Ceramics Shaping Approach and Application Trend Low-Temperature Sintering Summary and Future Trends References Further Reading Relaxor Ferroelectric-Based Ceramics Introduction Crystal Structures of Relaxor Ferroelectrics Dielectric Properties of Relaxor Ferroelectrics Origin of Giant Permittivity Diffuse Phase Transition Dielectric Relaxation Skanavi-Type Dielectric Relaxation Micro-Macro Domain Change Fractal Analysis of Relaxor Ferroelectrics Critical Exponent in Relaxor Ferroelectrics Fractal Analysis of the Electric Field-Induced AE Electrostriction in Relaxor Ferroelectrics Electro-optic Effect Summary References Bi-Based Lead-Free Piezoelectric Ceramics Introduction (Bi1/2Na1/2)TiO3 [BNT]-Based Ceramics (Bi1/2Na1/2)TiO3 [BNT]-(Bi1/2K1/2)TiO3 [BKT]-BaTiO3 [BT] System (Bi1/2Na1/2)TiO3 [BNT]-(Bi1/2Li1/2)TiO3 [BLT]-(Bi1/2K1/2)TiO3 [BKT] System (Bi1/2K1/2)TiO3 [BKT]-Based Ceramics (Bi1/2K1/2)TiO3 [BKT]-BaTiO3 [BT] System BiMeO3-Based Materials Summary References Further Reading Quartz-Based Piezoelectric Materials Piezoelectricity of Quartz Crystal Discovery of Piezoelectricity Symmetry of Quartz Crystal and Its Axis Differences Among Other Piezoelectric Materials Production of Artificial Quartz Crystal The Relationship Between Natural and Artificial Quartz Crystal Specifications of Artificial Quartz Crystal Cutting Angles and Their Vibration Mode Examples of Typical Cutting Angles and Their Vibration Mode and Characteristics Major Cutting Angles (AT-Cut and +1-X-Cut) and Their Vibration AT-Cut Thickness Shear Mode Quartz Crystal Vibrator +1°-X-Cut Tuning Fork Quartz Crystal Vibrator (Cantilever, Tuning Fork) Other Cutting Angles Developed by River Eletec Corporation Lame Mode Resonator Other New Resonators Developed by River Eletec Corporation GT-Cut Resonator11 Lamb Wave Resonator12 Resonator, Oscillator, and Filter Applications Mobile Communications Bluetooth Wireless LAN Cellular Phones One-Segment/Full Segment Tuners RF Module IEEE802.15.4 (Zigbee, etc.) UWB (Ultrawide band) Secure Private Cosm (SPC) Encryption Duplexer IF (Intermediate Frequency) Filter Monolithic Crystal Filter (MCF) Camera Module Automotive Applications Navigation (GPS) Car Audio/Video System Keyless Entry Laser/Millimeter Wave Radar Body Control Module Other Applications Medical Instruments Capsule Endoscopes Blood Sugar Level Sensors Near-Field Communications Characteristics of Near-Field Communications Acknowledgements References Nano- and Microdomain Engineering of Lithium Niobate and Lithium Tantalate for Piezoelectric Applications Introduction Piezoelectric Properties of Lithium Niobate and Lithium Tantalate The Advantages of Single-Crystal Ferroelectrics For Piezoelectric Applications The Influence of the Periodic Domain Structure on Piezoelectric and Acoustic Properties Nano- and Microdomain Engineering in Lithium Niobate and Lithium Tantalate Crystals Applications of Domain-Engineered Lithium Niobate and Lithium Tantalate Crystals for Light Frequency Conversion Generation of Terahertz Radiation in Periodically Poled Lithium Niobate Crystal Conclusions and Future Trends References Further Reading Single Crystal PZN-PT, PMN-PT, PSN-PT, and PIN-PT-Based Piezoelectric Materials Introduction The History of Relaxor Ferroelectrics PZN-PT Crystal Growth of PZN-PT Properties of PZN-PT PMN-PT Crystal Phase Diagram and Crystal Growth Dielectric Properties Piezoelectric Properties Solid State Crystal Growth PSN-PT Crystal Growth of PSN-PT Properties of PSN-PT PIN-PT Crystal Theoretical Models for Relaxor-Based Crystals Domain Engineering and Engineered Domain Configurations Polarization Rotation and Mesophase Application in Piezoelectric Actuators and Medical Transducers Application in Piezoelectric Actuators Application in Medical Transducers Conclusion and Future Trends References Electroactive Polymers as Actuators Introduction Historical Review The Two EAPs Groups Electronic (Also Known as Field-Activated) EAP Ferroelectric Polymers Dielectric Electroactive Polymers Electrostrictive Graft Elastomers Ionic EAP Ionomeric Polymer-Metal Composites (IPMC) Conductive Polymers Carbon Nanotubes Ionic Polymer Gels Current and Under Consideration Applications Medical Applications Lab-on-a-Chip Systems Tissue Engineering Biomimetic Robotics Planetary Applications The Armwrestling Challenge-As a State-of-the-Art Indicator Challenges, Trends and Potential Developments Conclusions Acknowledgments References Further Reading Piezoelectric Composite Materials Introduction Connectivity Composite Effects Sum Effects Combination Effects Product Effects PZT:Polymer Composites Piezoelectric Composite Materials Principle of PZT:Polymer Composites Theoretical Models for 0-3 Composites Advanced PZT:Polymer Composites Composite Dampers and Energy Harvesters Piezoelectric Composite Dampers Piezoelectric Composite Energy Harvesting Macro Fiber Composites Cymbal Energy Harvesting Magnetoelectric Sensors References Manufacturing Methods for Piezoelectric Ceramic Materials Material Designing Composition Selection Dopant Effects on Piezoelectricity Domain Wall Stability Crystallographic Deficiencies High-Power Characteristics Fabrication Processes of Ceramics Preparation of Ceramic Powders Solid State Reaction Coprecipitation Alkoxide Hydrolysis Sintering Process Single Crystal Growth Quartz, LN, LT PZN-PT, PMN-PT, PZT Templated Grain Growth Device Designing Single Disks Multilayers Unimorphs/Bimorphs Flextension/Hinge Lever Amplification Mechanisms Flexible Composites Thin/Thick Films Film Manufacturing Techniques Aerosol Deposition MEMS Application Constraints in Thin/Thick Films Size Effect on Ferroelectricity Grain Size Effect on Ferroelectricity 3-D Particle Size Effect on Ferroelectricity References Multilayer Technologies for Piezoceramic Materials Introduction ML Manufacturing Processes Cut-and-Bond Method Tape-Casting Method Textured ML Actuators Pb-Free Piezoelectrics Template ML Preparation Internal Electrode Design Internal Electrode Configuration Interdigital-Type Electrode Plate-Through Internal Electrode Slit-Insert Design/Interdigital With Float Electrode Printing Pattern of Electrode Layer-Thickness Effect Vertical Crack Electrode Materials Actuator Electrodes: An Overview Pure-Silver ML Actuators Base-Metal Internal Electrode Barium Titanate-Based Chip Cu-Embedded Cofired PZT ML Actuators ML Actuators With Ceramic Electrodes Ceramic Electrodes Barium Titanate-Based ML Actuator Innovative Ml Structures Super-Long ML Design 3D Positioning Stage Reliability/Lifetime of Ml Actuators Heat Generation in ML Actuators Lifetime Test Health Monitoring References Single Crystal Preparation Techniques for Manufacturing Piezoelectric Materials Introduction Flux Growth of PZN-PT Single Crystals (i.e., Relaxor-PT Crystals of Low PT Contents) Flux Growth of PMN-PT Single Crystals (i.e., Relaxor-PT Crystals of High PT Contents) Other Commonly Encountered Phenomena Multiple Nucleation and Satellite Crystals Parasitic Crystals Side-Wall Nucleation Pyrochlore Crystals Flux Inclusions/Trappings Cracks Pt Inclusions Compositional Segregation PT-Rich Surface Layer and Fragile Domain Walls Conclusions References Thin Film Technologies for Manufacturing Piezoelectric Materials Introduction: Bulk and Thin Film Materials Fundamentals of Thin Film Deposition Classification of Deposition Process Key Deposition Conditions of PZT-Based Thin Films Control of Chemical Compositions Control of Crystal Phase Control of Microstructure Film Characterizations Film Structure Piezoelectric Properties Deposition of PZT-Based Thin Films Sputtering MOCVD/Sol-Gel Processes Dielectric and Piezoelectric Properties of PZT-Based Thin Films Sol-Gel/MOCVD Sputtered PZT Thin Films PZT-Based Thin Films for Micro-Electromechanical Systems (MEMS) PMNT Thin Films PMnN-PZT Thin Films PZT-Based Thin Film Micro-Electromechanical Systems (MEMS) PZT-Based Thin Film Piezoelectric Actuators Some Examples of the PZT-Based Piezoelectric Thin Film MEMS and Related Devices Gyro-Sensors Inkjet Printers FBAR Conclusions References Piezoelectric MEMS Technologies Introduction MEMS Applications MEMS Fabrication Peculiarities of Piezoelectric MEMS Technologies Lead Zirconate Titanate Films for MEMS Piezoelectric MEMS for Semiconductor Testing How to Test the Piezoelectric Films? New Broad Benefit of Piezoelectric MEMS Conclusions References Aerosol Deposition (AD) and Its Applications for Piezoelectric Devices Introduction Aerosol Deposition and Granule Spray in Vacuum (GSV) Process Deposition Mechanism Consolidation of Ceramic Powders at Room Temperature21 Impact Particle Velocity and Local Temperature Increase During AD Process Densification Mechanism of Ceramic Films in the AD Process21 Fabrication of Ferroelectric and Piezoelectric Thick Films by AD Thick Film Fabrication Thick Film Fine Patterning Electrical Properties of Piezoelectric Thick Films by AD High Breakdown Voltage of AD Thick Films Ferroelectric and Piezoelectric Properties of AD Thick Films Property Enhancement by Stress Modulation Laser Annealing for AD Films Lead-Free Piezoelectric Thick Films by AD Device Applications Piezoelectric Films for Bending Mode Microactuator81 Si-MEMS Optical Microscanner84 Metal-Based Optical Microscanner89 Optical Modulator91 Ultrasonic Motor Flexible Energy Harvester26 Summary References Manufacturing Technologies for Piezoelectric Transducers Introduction Transducer Materials Transducer Designs Pulse Drive Actuator Langevin Transducer Cymbal Transducer Single Cymbal Cymbal Array Double PZT Layer Cymbal Acoustic Lens and Horn Acoustic Lens Acoustic Horn Acoustic Impedance Matching Sonochemistry Piezoelectric Transformers Rosen-Type Transformer Step-Down Transformer References High-Power Piezoelectrics and Loss Mechanisms Introduction Phenomenological Approach to Losses in Piezoelectrics Piezoelectric Constitutive Equations Intensive Losses Extensive Losses Resonance and Antiresonance Dynamic Equations for the k31 Mode21 Admittance/Impedance Calculation for the k31 Mode Strain Distribution on the k31 Plate Resonance/Antiresonance Modes22 Dynamic Equations for the k33 Mode21 Boundary Condition: E-Constant vs. D-Constant Loss and Mechanical Quality Factor in k31 Mode21 Loss and Mechanical Quality Factor in Other Modes Equivalent Circuit With Losses Equivalency Between Mechanical and Electrical Systems Equivalent Circuit (Loss-Free) of the k31 Mode Equivalent Circuit (With Losses) of the k31 Mode Equivalent Circuit in IEEE Standard Equivalent Circuit With Three Losses 4-Terminal Equivalent Circuit (EC) Equivalent Circuit of the k33 Mode Heat Generation in Piezoelectrics Heat Generation at Off-Resonance Thermal Analysis Heat Generation Under Resonance Conditions High-Power Piezoelectric Characterization System (HiPoCS) Loss Measuring Technique I-Pseudostatic Method Loss Measuring Technique II-Admittance/Impedance Spectrum Method Resonance Under Constant Voltage Drive Resonance Under Constant Current Drive Resonance/Antiresonace Under Constant Vibration Velocity Real Electric Power Method Determination Methods of the Mechanical Quality Factor Loss Measuring Technique III-Transient/Burst Drive Method Pulse Drive Method Burst Mode Method Loss Measuring Technique-Sample Electrode Configuration Drive Schemes of Piezoelectric Transducers Off-Resonance (Pseudo-DC) Drive Resonance Drive Inductive Actuator Drive Loss Mechanisms in Piezoelectrics Microscopic Origins of Extensive Losses Loss Anisotropy-Crystal Orientation Dependence of Losses Loss Anisotropy in PZT PMN-PT Single Crystal Composition Dependence of Piezoelectric Losses PZT-Based Ceramics Pb-Free Piezoelectrics Doping Effect on Piezoelectric Losses Hard and Soft PZTs Dipole Random Alignment Unidirectionally Fixed Dipole Alignment Unidirectionally Reversible Dipole Alignment Grain Size Effect on Hysteresis and Losses Extended Rayleigh Law Approach Conventional Rayleigh Law Application of Hyperbolic Rayleigh Law DC Bias Field Effect on High-Power Characteristics High-Power Piezoelectrics for Practical Applications Low Temperature Sinterable ``Hard´´ PZT High-Power Piezoelectric Transformers Summary and Conclusions References Photostrictive Actuators Based on Piezoelectrics Introduction Prologue to the Discovery Background of Photostriction Photovoltaic Effect Experimental Phenomena of the Bulk Photovoltatic Effect Bulk Photovoltaic Effect Experimental Setup Physical Models for the Bulk Photovoltaic Effect Current Source Model Voltage Source Model Effect of Light Polarization Direction PLZT Composition Research Dopant Research Photostrictive Effect Figures of Merit Materials Considerations Ceramic Preparation Method Effect Processing Method Grain Size Effect Surface/Geometry Dependence Photostrictive Device Applications Displacement Amplification Mechanism Photo-Driven Relay Micro Walking Machine Photophone Micro Propelling Robot Conclusions References The Performance of Piezoelectric Materials Under Stress Introduction The Unit Cell and Ferroelectricity Driving Forces for Polarization Reorientation Domains Under Stress Observation of Effects of Stress Conclusions and Future Trends References Index