Introduction to Research Methods and Data Analysis in Psychology

Description

This third edition of Introduction to Research Methods and Data Analysis in Psychology provides you with a unique, balanced blend of quantitative and qualitative research methods. Highly practical in nature, the book guides you, step-by-step, through the research process and is underpinned by SPSS screenshots, diagrams and examples throughout. Cover......Page 1 Contents......Page 10 List of figures......Page 18 Guided tour......Page 23 Preface......Page 25 Acknowledgements......Page 27 Publisher’s acknowledgements......Page 28 Part 1 Introducing research methods......Page 30 Introduction......Page 32 1.1 Why research?......Page 33 1.2 A very brief history of science......Page 35 1.3 Quantitative versus qualitative?......Page 42 1.5 Planning research......Page 45 Further reading......Page 68 Introduction......Page 69 2.1 Operationalising variables......Page 70 2.2 Independent and dependent variables......Page 71 2.3 The problem of error and confounding variables......Page 72 2.4 Levels of measurement......Page 74 2.5 Categorical and continuous variables......Page 77 Further reading......Page 78 3.1 Reliability......Page 79 3.2 Validity......Page 80 3.3 The role of replication in the social sciences......Page 81 3.5 The problem of sampling bias......Page 82 3.6 Methods of sampling......Page 83 3.7 Sample sizes......Page 86 3.8 Control and placebo groups......Page 88 Further reading......Page 89 Introduction......Page 90 4.2 Types, purposes and structures of interviews......Page 91 4.3 Interview techniques......Page 95 4.4 Group discussions......Page 100 4.5 Repertory grid techniques......Page 103 4.6 Observation......Page 104 4.7 Structured and non-participant observation......Page 105 4.8 Participant observation......Page 111 Further reading......Page 114 5.1 Questionnaires......Page 116 5.2 The first rule of questionnaire design: don't reinvent the wheel......Page 117 5.3 General principles, types and structure of questionnaires......Page 118 5.4 Writing questions and measuring attitudes......Page 122 5.6 Reliability......Page 128 5.7 Validity......Page 133 5.8 Psychometric tests......Page 137 Further reading......Page 141 Introduction......Page 142 6.1 The role of experiments in psychology......Page 143 6.2 Types of experiment......Page 145 6.3 Identifying four sources of error in experiments......Page 152 6.4 Four ways to reduce error in experiments......Page 154 6.5 Types of experimental design......Page 155 6.6 Running an experiment......Page 160 6.7 Describing an experiment: a note about causality......Page 162 6.8 Returning to the basics of design......Page 164 Further reading......Page 165 Introduction......Page 166 7.1 Types of e-research......Page 167 7.2 A warning – what is the population?......Page 168 7.3 E-research and online topics......Page 169 7.4 E-research and offline topics......Page 173 7.5 Ethical issues in e-research......Page 183 Further reading......Page 188 Part 2 Analysing quantitative data......Page 190 Introduction......Page 192 8.2 Measures of central tendency and dispersion......Page 194 8.3 Probability......Page 205 8.4 Levels of significance......Page 210 8.5 The normal distribution......Page 213 8.6 Understanding z-scores......Page 217 8.7 Standard error......Page 218 8.8 Parametric versus non-parametric tests......Page 219 Further reading......Page 220 Introduction......Page 221 9.1 First steps with SPSS......Page 222 9.2 The Data Editor window......Page 225 9.3 Defining variables......Page 226 9.4 Entering data......Page 230 9.6 Sorting and splitting files......Page 231 9.7 Selecting cases......Page 234 9.8 Recoding variables......Page 236 9.9 Computing new variables......Page 239 Further reading......Page 241 Introduction......Page 242 10.1 Descriptive statistics......Page 243 10.2 Simple and complex bar charts......Page 252 10.3 Histograms......Page 254 10.4 Pie charts......Page 256 10.5 Box plots......Page 257 10.6 Scattergrams......Page 260 10.7 Editing charts......Page 262 11.1 Theoretical issues in inferential statistics......Page 264 11.2 Introducing the t-test......Page 266 11.3 Calculating an independent groups t-test......Page 269 11.4 Calculating a related t-test......Page 274 11.5 Introducing non-parametric tests of difference......Page 279 11.6 Calculating a Mann–Whitney U-test......Page 280 11.7 Calculating a Wilcoxon test......Page 286 Introduction......Page 292 12.1 Introducing chi-square......Page 293 12.2 Calculating chi-square......Page 295 12.3 Introducing correlation coefficients......Page 301 12.4 Calculating correlation coefficients......Page 303 Introduction......Page 309 13.1 Terminology and techniques......Page 310 13.2 Calculating a one-way ANOVA......Page 313 13.3 Calculating a two-way ANOVA......Page 328 13.4 Calculating a mixed design ANOVA......Page 332 13.5 Non-parametric alternatives – Kruskal–Wallis and Friedman......Page 336 Introduction......Page 341 14.1 When would you use MANOVA?......Page 342 14.2 Introduction to MANOVA......Page 344 14.3 Calculating a MANOVA......Page 345 14.4 Running a discriminant function analysis......Page 355 Further reading......Page 360 Introduction......Page 361 15.1 Terminology and techniques......Page 362 15.2 Calculating multiple regression using SPSS......Page 366 Further reading on statistics......Page 374 Statistical test flowchart......Page 375 Introduction......Page 378 16.1 What is a latent variable?......Page 379 16.2 Fundamentals of EFA......Page 384 16.3 What is the difference between factor analysis and PCA?......Page 387 16.4 Creating scale scores manually......Page 401 Further reading......Page 404 17.1 What is R?......Page 405 17.2 Installing new R libraries......Page 409 17.3 The R commander......Page 410 17.4 Importing data into R......Page 415 17.5 Getting started with R code......Page 416 17.7 Basic R commands......Page 417 17.8 Vectors......Page 418 17.10 Save your code......Page 419 17.12 Graphs......Page 420 17.13 Independent t-test......Page 422 17.14 Related t-test......Page 423 17.17 Chi square......Page 424 17.18 Correlation and linear regression......Page 425 17.19 Multiple regression......Page 426 17.20 One-way ANOVA......Page 427 17.21 Two-way ANOVA......Page 429 17.22 Repeated measures ANOVA......Page 431 17.23 Reshaping wide format data into long format......Page 432 17.24 Exploratory factor analysis......Page 433 Further reading......Page 434 Part 3 Analysing qualitative data......Page 436 Introduction......Page 438 18.1 Philosophical underpinnings: the old paradigm......Page 439 18.2 Philosophical underpinnings: the new paradigm......Page 442 18.3 Revisiting the qualitative versus quantitative debate......Page 444 18.4 Limitations of the new paradigm for the social sciences......Page 445 18.5 Varieties of qualitative methods and analysis......Page 446 Further reading......Page 449 Introduction......Page 450 19.1 Purposes and principles of transcription......Page 451 19.2 Systems of transcription......Page 453 19.3 Transcription as analysis......Page 454 19.4 Coding qualitative data......Page 455 19.5 Thematic analysis......Page 459 19.6 Organising and presenting the analysis of textual data......Page 460 Further reading......Page 462 Introduction......Page 463 20.1 The fundamentals of phenomenology: philosophical issues......Page 464 20.2 The fundamentals of phenomenology: methodological issues......Page 466 20.3 Searching for meaning: phenomenological psychology and the Duquesne School......Page 469 20.4 Searching for meaning: interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA)......Page 474 20.5 Strengths, limitations and debates......Page 478 Further reading......Page 481 Introduction......Page 482 21.2 Collecting data......Page 483 21.3 The dynamic nature of meaning making......Page 484 21.4 Coding......Page 486 21.6 Theory development......Page 489 21.7 Strengths, limitations and debates......Page 491 Further reading......Page 494 Introduction......Page 495 22.1 The turn to language......Page 496 22.2 Approaches to the study of discourse......Page 498 22.3 Discursive psychology......Page 499 22.4 Foucauldian discourse analysis......Page 509 22.5 Strengths, limitations and debates......Page 516 Further reading......Page 519 Introduction......Page 520 23.1 The turn to narrative......Page 521 23.2 Selecting informants......Page 522 23.3 Collecting data......Page 524 23.5 Analysing life story data......Page 528 23.6 Writing a life story......Page 531 23.7 Narrative practice and form......Page 533 23.8 Strengths, limitations and debates......Page 534 Further reading......Page 536 Introduction......Page 537 24.1 Use of computers in qualitative research......Page 538 24.2 Qualitative analysis software......Page 539 24.4 Fundamentals of using QDA software......Page 541 24.5 Controversies and debates......Page 545 Further reading......Page 546 Introduction......Page 547 25.1 Similarities between methods......Page 548 25.2 Four models of (sequenced) mixed methods......Page 550 25.3 Four models of triangulated methods......Page 556 25.4 Blended or 'hybrid' methods......Page 559 25.5 Q method......Page 560 25.7 A final comment......Page 566 Further reading......Page 567 Resources: Q method......Page 568 Part 4 Ethics and reporting fi ndings......Page 570 Introduction......Page 572 26.1 Ethical fundamentals......Page 573 26.3 Respect for the autonomy and dignity of persons......Page 575 26.4 Scientific value......Page 576 26.6 Maximising benefit and minimising harm......Page 577 26.7 Other named issues in the Code of Human Research Ethics......Page 578 26.8 Research with (non-human) animals......Page 580 26.10 Politics and psychological research......Page 583 26.11 Evaluation research......Page 584 Further reading......Page 585 27.1 The standard scientific report style......Page 587 27.2 An example quantitative report (with commentary)......Page 594 27.3 Writing up qualitative research......Page 600 27.4 Writing skills......Page 602 27.5 Presenting research – writing for publication......Page 604 Further reading......Page 605 Appendix: Tables of critical values for statistical tests......Page 606 References......Page 614 B......Page 625 C......Page 626 D......Page 627 E......Page 628 F......Page 629 H......Page 630 J......Page 631 M......Page 632 O......Page 633 P......Page 634 Q......Page 635 R......Page 636 S......Page 637 T......Page 638 V......Page 639 Z......Page 640