Refinery Feedstocks (Petroleum Refining Technology Series)

Description

Over the last several decades, the petroleum industry has experienced significant changes in resource availability, petro-politics, and technological advancements dictated by the changing quality of refinery feedstocks. However, the dependence on fossil fuels as the primary energy source has remained unchanged. Refinery Feedstocks addresses the problems of changing feedstock availability and properties; the refining process; and solids deposition during refining. This book will take the reader through the various steps that are necessary for crude oil evaluation and refining including the potential for the use of coal liquids, shale oil, and non-fossil fuel materials (biomass) as refinery feedstocks. Other features: Describes the various types of crude oil and includes a discussion of extra heavy oil and tar sand bitumen Includes basic properties and specifications of crude oil and the significance in refinery operations This book is a handy reference for engineers, scientists, and students who want an update on crude oil refining and on the direction the industry must take to assure the refinability of various feedstocks and the efficiency of the refining processes in the next fifty years. Non-technical readers, with help from the extensive glossary, will also benefit from reading this book. Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Preface Author Part 1 Feedstocks – Evaluation and Properties Chapter 1 Natural Gas, Crude Oil, Heavy Crude Oil, Extra-Heavy Crude Oil, and Tar Sand Bitumen 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The Natural Gas Family 1.2.1 Natural Gas 1.2.2 Crude Oil-Related Gas 1.2.3 Gas Hydrates 1.2.4 Coalbed Methane 1.2.5 Biogenic Gas 1.3 The Crude Oil Family 1.3.1 Conventional Crude Oil 1.3.2 Crude Oil from Tight Formations 1.3.3 Opportunity Crude Oil 1.3.4 High Acid Crude Oil 1.3.5 Foamy Oil 1.3.6 Heavy Crude Oil 1.4 Extra-Heavy Crude Oil and Tar Sand Bitumen 1.4.1 Extra-Heavy Crude Oil 1.4.2 Tar Sand Bitumen 1.5 Other Feedstocks 1.5.1 Coal Liquids 1.5.2 Shale Oil 1.5.3 Biomass References Chapter 2 Feedstock Evaluation 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Feedstock Assay 2.3 Physical Properties 2.3.1 Acid Number 2.3.2 Elemental Analysis 2.3.3 Density and Specific Gravity 2.3.4 Metals Content 2.3.5 Surface and Interfacial Tension 2.3.6 Viscosity 2.4 Thermal Properties 2.4.1 Aniline Point 2.4.2 Carbon Residue 2.4.3 Critical Properties 2.4.4 Enthalpy 2.4.5 Heat of Combustion 2.4.6 Latent Heat 2.4.7 Liquefaction and Solidification 2.4.8 Pressure–Volume–Temperature Relationships 2.4.9 Specific Heat 2.4.10 Thermal Conductivity 2.4.11 Volatility 2.5 Electrical Properties 2.5.1 Conductivity 2.5.2 Dielectric Constant 2.5.3 Dielectric Strength 2.5.4 Dielectric Loss and Power Factor 2.5.5 Static Electrification 2.6 Optical Properties 2.6.1 Optical Activity 2.6.2 Refractive Index 2.7 Spectroscopic Properties 2.7.1 Infrared Spectroscopy 2.7.2 Mass Spectrometry 2.7.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 2.8 Chromatographic Properties 2.8.1 Adsorption Chromatography 2.8.2 Gas Chromatography 2.8.3 Gel Permeation Chromatography 2.8.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 2.8.5 Ion-Exchange Chromatography 2.8.6 Simulated Distillation 2.8.7 Supercritical Fluid Chromatography 2.9 Molecular Weight 2.10 Use of the Data References Chapter 3 Feedstock Composition 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Elemental Composition 3.3 Chemical Composition 3.3.1 Hydrocarbon Constituents 3.3.1.1 Paraffin Hydrocarbon Derivatives 3.3.1.2 Cycloparaffin Hydrocarbon Derivatives 3.3.1.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbon Derivatives 3.3.1.4 Unsaturated Hydrocarbon Derivatives 3.3.2 Non-Hydrocarbon Constituents 3.3.2.1 Sulfur Compounds 3.3.2.2 Nitrogen Compounds 3.3.2.3 Oxygen Compounds 3.3.2.4 Metallic Constituents 3.3.2.5 Porphyrins 3.4 Chemical Composition by Distillation 3.4.1 Gases and Naphtha 3.4.2 Middle Distillates 3.4.3 Vacuum Residua 3.5 Fractional Composition 3.5.1 Solvent Methods 3.5.2 Adsorption Methods 3.5.3 Chemical Methods 3.6 Use of the Data References Chapter 4 Asphaltene Constituents in Feedstocks 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Separation 4.2.1 Influence of Solvent Type 4.2.2 Influence of the Degree of Dilution 4.2.3 Influence of Temperature 4.2.4 Influence of Contact Time 4.2.5 General Aspects 4.3 Composition 4.4 Molecular Weight 4.5 Reactions 4.6 Solubility Parameter 4.7 Structural Aspects References Chapter 5 Instability and Incompatibility 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Instability and Incompatibility 5.3 Factors Influencing Instability and Incompatibility 5.3.1 Acidity 5.3.2 Asphaltene Content 5.3.3 Density/Specific Gravity 5.3.4 Elemental Composition 5.3.5 Metals Content 5.3.6 Pour Point 5.3.7 Viscosity 5.3.8 Volatility 5.3.9 Water Content, Salt Content, and Bottom Sediment/Water (BS&W) 5.4 Determining Instability and Incompatibility References Chapter 6 Introduction to Refining Processes 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Refinery Configuration 6.2.1 Topping Refinery and Hydroskimming Refinery 6.2.2 Conversion Refinery 6.3 Distillation 6.3.1 Distillation at Atmospheric Pressure 6.3.2 Distillation under Reduced Pressure 6.4 Thermal Processes 6.4.1 Thermal Cracking 6.4.2 Visbreaking 6.4.3 Coking 6.4.3.1 Delayed Coking 6.4.3.2 Fluid Coking 6.4.4 Comments on Viscous Feedstocks 6.5 Catalytic Processes 6.5.1 Catalytic Cracking 6.5.2 Catalysts 6.5.3 Comments on Viscous Feedstocks 6.6 Hydroprocesses 6.6.1 Hydrotreating 6.6.2 Hydrofining 6.6.3 Hydrocracking 6.6.4 Comments on Viscous Feedstocks 6.7 Deasphalting 6.8 Viscous Feedstocks in the Refinery References Chapter 7 Feedstock Chemistry in the Refinery 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Cracking Chemistry 7.2.1 Thermal Cracking 7.2.1.1 General Chemistry 7.2.1.2 Asphaltene Chemistry 7.2.2 Catalytic Cracking 7.2.3 Dehydrogenation 7.2.4 Dehydrocyclization 7.3 Hydrogenation 7.3.1 Hydrotreating 7.3.1.1 General Chemistry 7.3.1.2 Asphaltene Chemistry 7.3.1.3 Catalysts 7.3.2 Hydrocracking 7.3.2.1 General Chemistry 7.3.2.2 Asphaltene Chemistry 7.3.2.3 Catalysts 7.3.3 Solvent Deasphalting 7.3.3.1 Effect of Solvent Type 7.3.3.2 Effect of Temperature and Pressure 7.3.3.3 Effect of the Solvent-to-Oil Ratio 7.4 Process Chemistry 7.4.1 Thermal Chemistry 7.4.1.1 Visbreaking 7.4.2 Hydroconversion Chemistry References Chapter 8 Refinery Reactors 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Reactor Types 8.2.1 Batch Reactor 8.2.2 Continuous Reactor 8.2.3 Demetallization Reactor 8.2.4 Ebullating Bed Reactor 8.2.5 Fixed-Bed Reactor 8.2.6 Fluidized Bed Reactor 8.2.7 Plug-Flow Reactor 8.2.8 Flash Reactor 8.2.9 Slurry Reactor 8.2.10 Upflow Expanded-Bed Reactor 8.3 Process Parameters 8.3.1 Partial Pressure 8.3.2 Space Velocity 8.3.3 Temperature 8.3.4 Catalyst Life 8.3.5 Feedstock 8.4 Challenges References Part 2 Feedstocks in the Future Refinery Chapter 9 Alternate Feedstocks 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Biomass 9.2.1 Carbohydrates 9.2.2 Vegetable Oils 9.2.3 Plant Fibers 9.2.4 Energy Crops 9.2.4.1 Cordgrass and Switchgrass 9.2.4.2 Jerusalem Artichoke 9.2.4.3 Miscanthus 9.2.4.4 Reed Plants 9.2.4.5 Residual Herbaceous Biomass 9.2.4.6 Short Rotation Coppice 9.2.4.7 Sorghum 9.2.5 Wood 9.2.5.1 Types of Wood 9.2.5.2 Composition and Properties 9.2.5.3 Chemical Composition 9.2.6 Chemistry and Uses 9.3 Waste 9.3.1 Domestic and Industrial Waste 9.3.2 Effects of Waste References Chapter 10 Feedstock Integration in the Refinery 10.1 Introduction 10.2 History 10.3 Refinery Configuration 10.3.1 Crude Oil Refinery 10.3.2 Biorefinery 10.3.3 Coal Liquids Refinery 10.3.4 Shale Oil Refinery 10.3.5 Gasification Refinery 10.3.5.1 Gasifiers 10.3.5.2 Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis 10.4 Products from Alternate Feedstocks 10.4.1 Gaseous Fuels 10.4.2 Liquid Fuels 10.4.3 Solid Fuels 10.5 The Reconfigured Refinery References Glossary Conversion Factors Index