New Perspectives on Historical Latin Syntax: Volume 4 Complex Sentences, Grammaticalization, Typology

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New Perspectives on Historical Latin Syntax: Complex Sentences, Grammaticalization, Typology is the fourth in a set of four volumes dealing with the long-term evolution of Latin syntax, roughly from the 4th century BCE up to the 6th century CE. As in the other volumes, the non-technical style and extensive illustration with classical examples makes the content readable and immediately useful to the widest audience. first publication to investigates the long-term syntactic history of Latin generally accessible to linguists and non-linguists theoretically coherent, formulated in functional-typological terms does not require reading fluency in Latin, since all examples are translated into English Acknowledgments List of abbreviations Epilegomena 1. Retrospective 2. Volume 4 Adverbial subordination: Introductory overview 1. Introduction 2. The concept of subordination: Adverbial phrases and studies of relations 3. Treatment of adverbial clauses 3.1. Purpose and result 3.2. Conditionals and concessives 3.3. Causals 3.4. Temporals 3.5. Comparatives Purpose and result clauses 1. Introduction: Clarification of previous concepts and methodologies 2. Function and possible syntactic structures 2.1. Vt + subjunctive 2.2. Non-finite forms 2.3. Relative connector-clause 2.3.1. Generic relative in purpose clauses 2.3.2. Quo 2.3.3. The relative pronoun as an introductory element for result clauses 3. The semantic level 3.1. Characterizing semantic features 3.2. Analysis of the characterizing features 3.2.1. Possibility and Factuality 3.2.2. Control, intentionality, animacy, and prospectivity 3.2.3. The semantic value of the governing verb 3.3. Some related semantic relations 3.3.1. ‘Conditionals’ 3.3.2. Comparative-Modal clauses 3.3.3. Causal clauses 3.4. Continuum in/between semantic relations 3.5. Recapitulation of semantic features 4. The syntactic level 4.1. Syntactic status 4.2. Analysis of (formal) features with syntactic implications 4.2.1. Correlation 4.2.2. First element of the correlation 4.2.3. Introductory element 4.2.4. Nominalization 4.2.5. Polarity 4.2.6. Verb tense 4.3. The syntactic function and the level of integration References Conditionals and concessives 1. Conditionals 1.1. Preliminary remarks 1.1.1. Paratactic conditionals 1.1.2. The origin of conditional clauses 1.1.3. Condensed conditions 1.2. Types of conditional clauses 1.2.1. The first type: Objectivity 1.2.2. The second type: Possibility 1.2.3. The third type: Unreality 1.3. Some historical considerations 1.4. Conditional perfection 1.4.1. Necessary and sufficient conditions 1.5. Exclusive nisi and exceptive nisi 1.5.1. Exclusive nisi 1.5.2. Exceptive nisi 1.5.3. Nisi and si non 1.5.4. Other negative conditional conjunctions: ni, si minus, sin 1.6. Speech act conditions 1.7. Complex conditional connectives 1.7.1. Speech act conditions introduced by si modo 1.7.2. Si modo as a true condition 1.7.3. Si tamen 1.7.4. Si quidem 1.8. The relationship between condition and cause 1.9. Epistemic conditionals 2. Concessive clauses 2.1. Preliminary remarks 2.2. True concessives 2.2.1. Quamquam 2.2.2. Etsi 2.2.3. Tametsi 2.2.4. Tamenetsi 2.3. The rectifying function of quamquam, etsi, and tametsi 2.4. Concessive conditionals 2.4.1. Quamuis 2.4.2. Etiamsi (etiam si) 2.5. Contextual concessivity 2.5.1. Si-clauses 2.5.2. The exclusive disjunction siue ... siue ‘whether ... or not’ 2.5.3. The type quisquis est ‘whoever it may be’ 2.5.4. Cum-clauses 2.5.5. Vt-clauses 2.6. Concession in paratactic and coordinate structures 2.6.1. The correlative type quidem... sed (tamen) 2.6.2. Concessive subjunctive 2.7. Licet 2.8. The concessive subordinators in Late Latin References Causal clauses 1. Causality and adverbial clauses 2. Two semantic types of causal clauses 3. Types of causal conjunctions in Latin 4. Processes of grammaticalization of the Latin causal conjunctions 4.1. Primary causal conjunctions 4.1.1. The conjunction quod 4.1.2. The conjunctions quia, cur, quare 4.2. Causal conjunctions with a temporal origin 4.2.1. Quoniam, quando, dum 4.2.2. Cum, ubi, postquam 4.3. Causal conjunctions with origins in manner 4.4. Causal conjunctions, finals, and quantifiers 5. Distributional properties of quod-quia vs. quoniam 5.1. Possibilities of coordination 5.2. Answer to a causal interrogative 5.3. Use of correlatives 5.4. Quod and quia as complementizers 5.5. Focalization 5.6. Scope of illocutionary force and of negation 5.7. Use of the subjunctive 5.8. The consecutio temporum 5.9. Word order 6. Diachronic interferences and changes 6.1. Quia instead of quoniam 6.2. Quoniam instead of quia 6.3. Quod and eo quod, pro eo quod, pro quod Temporal clauses 1. Time and the temporal clause 1.1. The basic concept of time and the temporal clause 1.2. Semantic and pragmatic extensions of temporal clauses 1.3. Temporal clauses and clause-linking 1.3.1. Hierarchization 1.3.2. Desententialization and tense/mood 1.3.3. Desententialization and aspect 2. The time network in Latin 3. Temporal subordinators 3.1. Morphology and multifunctionality 3.2. Categories of diachronic input 3.2.1. Simple subordinators 3.2.1.1. Subordinators that derive from the relative 3.2.1.2. Dum 3.2.1.3. Simplicity 3.2.2. Complex subordinators 3.2.2.1. Postquam 3.2.2.2. Comparative constructions 3.2.2.3. Ex quo 3.3. Between Old Latin and Classical Latin: cum + subjunctive 3.3.1. The subjunctive in the relative clause 3.3.2. From relative clause to cum causale/historicum 3.4. The subordinators in Late Latin 4. Time location 4.1. Simultaneity overlap, anteriority, immediate anteriority 4.1.1. Semantics 4.1.2. Expression formats 4.1.2.1. SIOVER 4.1.2.2. ANTE 4.1.2.3. IMANTE 4.1.2.4. Temporal distance 4.2. Discourse functions 4.2.1. The cum historicum 4.2.2. Cum relativum and cum inversum 4.3. The cum historicum as “general subordinator” 4.4. Posteriority 4.4.1. Semantics 4.4.2. Expression formats 4.4.2.1. Clause position 4.4.2.2. Tense/aspect 4.4.2.3. Modality 5. Contingency 5.1. Semantics 5.1.1. Types of situational plurality 5.1.2. CONTING as a special case of situational plurality 5.1.3. The plurality continuum of iterative clauses 5.2. Expression formats 5.2.1. Subordinators 5.2.2. Tense and aspect 6. Time extent 6.1. Co-extensiveness and terminus ad quem 6.1.1. Semantics 6.1.2. Expression formats 6.1.2.1. Dum 6.1.2.2. Donec 6.1.2.3. Quoad 6.2. Terminus a quo 6.2.1. Semantics 6.2.2. Expression formats 7. Conclusion 7.1. Network-external relations 7.2. Temporal subordinators and network-internal relationships Comparative clauses 1. Introduction 2. Comparative clauses of Degree 2.1. Definition and constituent parts 2.2. The comparee and the comparative predicate 2.3. The standard 2.4. The degree marker and the standard marker 2.4.1. Comparatives of inequality: Superiority and inferiority 2.4.2. Comparative constructions of equality, or equative constructions 2.5. Lexical comparison 2.6. Pseudo-comparative structures 2.7. Syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic status of comparative clauses of Degree 3. Comparative clauses of Manner 3.1. Definition and constituent parts 3.1.1. The comparee, the parameter, and the parameter marker 3.1.2. The standard and the standard marker 3.2. Functions of comparative clauses of Manner 3.2.1. Representational level 3.2.2. Interpersonal level 3.3. Syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic status of comparative clauses of Manner References Relative clauses 1. Definition and structure of the relative clause 1.1. Status quaestionis 1.2. Definition of relative clauses 1.2.1. Typological definitions 1.2.2. Structure of Latin relative clauses 1.3. Relative pronouns and relative adverbs 1.3.1. Types of relative pronouns and relative adverbs 1.3.2. Functions of relative pronouns 1.3.3. Etymology of relative pronouns 1.4. Relative clauses with a finite verb 1.4.1. Subjunctive by attractio modi 1.4.2. Subjunctive with a nonspecific value 1.4.3. The subjunctive in adverbial relative clauses 1.5. Relative clauses without a finite verb 1.5.1. Participles and relative clauses 2. Phenomenology of the pivot in the matrix clause and semantics of the relative clauses 2.1. Lexical head 2.1.1. Semantics of external-headed relative clauses 2.2. Pronominal and free relative clauses 2.2.1. Pronominal relative clauses 2.2.2. Free relative clauses 2.2.3. Syntactic status of free relative clauses 2.2.4. Semantics of free, pronominal, and internal-headed relative clauses 2.3. Relation between the pivot and the relative pronoun 2.3.1. Attractio inversa 2.3.2. Attractio relativi 3. Relative clause typology 3.1. Relativization operations 3.1.1. Subordination 3.1.2. Attribution 3.1.3. Empty-place formation 3.2. Accessibility hierarchy 3.2.1. The concept of an accessibility hierarchy 3.2.2. The accessibility hierarchy and Latin relative clauses 3.3. Relativization strategies 3.3.1. Nonreduction Strategy 3.3.2. Resumptive Pronoun Strategy 3.3.3. Relative Pronoun Strategy 3.3.4. Gap Strategy 3.3.5. Concurrence of strategies 3.3.6. Participle Strategy 3.4. Position of relative clauses 4. Relative clause typology in Latin 4.1. Preposed relative clauses 4.2. Prenominal relative clauses 4.3. Postposed relative clauses 4.3.1. Relative connection 4.4. Postnominal relative clauses 4.5. Circumnominal relative clauses 5. Evolution of the relative clause 5.1. An evolutionary hypothesis 5.1.1. Genesis of the correlative clause 5.1.2. Development of other types of relative clauses 5.1.3. Development of free relative clauses and relative clauses with a pronominal head 5.1.4. Genesis of different relativization strategies 5.2. Early Latin 5.3. Classical and post-Classical Latin 5.4. Late Latin Comparative and superlative 1. Basic concepts 1.1. The structure of the gradation patterns 1.2. The structure of the basic comparative pattern 1.2.1. The elements of comparison 1.2.2. The interplay between morphology and syntax 1.3. The various comparative patterns 1.3.1. Sapir’s analysis of gradation 1.3.2. Comparison of majority 1.3.3. Comparison of equality 1.3.4. Comparison of minority 1.4. Superlative 1.5. Some terminological questions 2. A typological survey of the comparative constructions 2.1. The comparative 2.2. The typological patterns 2.3. The cognitive bases of the comparative patterns 2.3.1. The separative comparative and the particle comparative: A contrastive analysis 2.3.2. The conjoined comparative 2.3.3. The surpass (exceed) comparative 2.3.4. Concluding remarks on the typology of the comparatives 2.3.5. Comparatives of equality and minority 2.4. The typology of the superlative 3. Historical syntax of comparison from Proto-Indo-European to Latin 3.1. The scenario in Proto-Indo-European 3.1.1. Comparative 3.1.1.1. The morphological tools for comparison: Their form and function 3.1.1.2. The lexical tools for comparison: Their form and function 3.2. The syntax of comparison in Latin 3.2.1. The various patterns of comparison in Latin 3.2.2. Origin and function of the ablative of comparison 3.2.3. Origin and function of quam as pivot 3.2.4. Other minor prepositional patterns 3.3. The patterns of comparison in Latin 3.3.1. Conjoined comparative 3.3.2. Separative comparative 3.3.2.1. Genitive 3.3.2.2. Dative 3.3.2.3. Prepositional phrases 3.3.3. Particle comparative 3.3.4. Surpass comparative 3.3.4.1. The decay of the surpass comparative 3.4. Comparative of minority 3.4.1. Comparative of minority encoded by sub- 3.5. Comparative of equality 3.6. Superlative 3.6.1. The morphology of the superlative 3.6.2. The absolute superlative 3.6.2.1. Intensifiers with the superlative 3.6.2.2. The absolute superlative encoded by prefixes: Per- and prae- 3.6.2.3. The superlative reinforced by quam 3.6.3. The encoding of the standard 3.6.3.1. The standard in the genitive 3.6.4. The standard with e, ex plus ablative 3.6.4.1. The standard introduced by inter, ante, and praeter 3.7. Superlative of minority 4. Concluding remarks Grammaticalization in Latin 1. Basic concepts 1.1. Grammaticalization as a general process 1.2. Grammaticalization vs. other phenomena 1.2.1. Agglutination 1.2.2. Lexicalization (freezing) and lexemization 1.2.3. Demotivation and reanalysis 1.2.4. Analogy 1.3. The different kinds of process referred to as grammaticalization 1.4. Grammatical lexemes in Latin 1.4.1. Frequency 1.4.2. Morphological features 1.5. The relationships between grammaticalization, agglutination, and lexicalization 1.5.1. Co-occurrence and interaction between grammaticalization, agglutination, and lexicalization 1.5.1.1. Agglutination and lexicalization at the same time 1.5.1.2. Agglutination and the creation of new lexical items 1.5.2. Grammaticalization occurring without agglutination 2. Methodological considerations 2.1. Latin and grammaticalization: Fertile ground 2.2. Grammaticalization according to Meillet 2.2.1. The creation of the words grammaticalisation, se grammaticaliser 2.2.2. Meillet’s Latin examples 2.2.3. Conclusion on Meillet’s interpretation 2.3. Grammaticalization after Meillet 2.4. Degrammaticalization 2.5. The extension and the limits of grammaticalization 2.6. Reconstructed and attested data; synchronic variations 2.7. A new look at grammaticalization in the light of the Latin texts 3. The most frequent grammaticalization processes 3.1. The starting point 3.1.1. Freezing of an inflected form 3.1.1.1. Freezing of the inflected form of a noun 3.1.1.2. Freezing of the inflected form of an adjective: From adjective to adverb 3.1.1.3. Freezing of the inflected form of a participle: From participle to adverb or preposition 3.1.1.4. Freezing of the inflected personal form of a verb 3.1.1.5. Freezing of the *kwo- / *kwi- pronouns into a relative, interrogative, or indefinite adverb 3.1.2. Agglutination of several words and freezing 3.1.2.1. Transcategorization of a nominal syntagm 3.1.2.2. Transcategorization of a prepositional syntagm 3.1.2.3. Transcategorization of a verbal syntagm 3.1.2.4. The directional adverbs in ...ō-uersus 3.1.2.5. Agglutination of several uninflected elements 3.2. The arrival point 3.3. The degree of “grammaticalization” and morpholexical status 3.3.1. From a lexical to a grammatical element 3.3.2. From a grammatical to a more grammatical element 3.4. Semantic change 3.4.1. Partial or total desemanticization 3.4.2. Loss of semantic features in a noun, noun phrase, or adverb 3.4.3. Loss of semantic features in a suffix 3.4.4. Suppletion 3.4.5. Pragmaticization of adverbs 3.5. Other cases of grammaticalization 4. Negation and grammaticalization in Latin 4.1. The French standard negation ne ... pas 4.2. The Latin negations nōn, nihil, nēmō 4.2.1. Origin of nōn 4.2.2. Origin of nihil 4.2.3. The origin of nēmō 4.3. The origin of the negative bound morpheme (prefix) ne-/n- 4.3.1. The stages in the grammaticalization chain 4.3.2. From grammatical lexeme to grammatical bound morpheme 4.3.3. Demotivation cases involving ne... /n 4.4. The prohibitive negation ne 4.4.1. First stage of grammaticalization: Transcategorization as a subordinator 4.4.2. Second stage of grammaticalization for ne as a subordinator 4.4.3. From imperative to prohibitive negation 4.5. Transcategorization of a negation into a subordinator: nei > nī ‘if... not’ 4.6. The archaic negation haud 4.7. Merging of a postposed negation into an interrogative, coordinator, subordinator 4.7.1. Quīn...? and quīdni...? 4.7.2. Quō-minus 4.8. From lexical lexeme to negation 4.9. Lexicalization of a sequence containing two negations 4.10. Cycles of negation 5. Endophors and deictics 5.1. Personal pronouns and grammaticalization 5.1.1. The reflexive pronoun sē 5.1.2. The subject constituent 5.2. Endophoric and deictic lexemes (pronouns, adjectives, adverbs): is, hic, iste, ille, ipse 5.2.1. The degree of grammaticalization in Latin texts 5.2.1.1. Toward the Romance definite article 5.2.1.2. Toward the indefinite singular article 5.2.1.3. Rhythm and scale of the grammaticalization processes 5.2.2. Grammaticalization and the endophoric-deictic lexemes 5.2.3. Pronouns and enclitic particles 5.2.4. Hic and grammaticalization 5.2.5. Ille and grammaticalization 5.2.5.1. Deictic functions of ille 5.2.5.2. Ille as an endophoric operator 5.2.6. Iste and grammaticalization 5.2.7. Endophoric is (ea, id) and grammaticalization 5.2.8. Grammaticalization and ipse 5.2.9. Conclusion: The existence of a specific group of grammatical lexemes 5.3. Grammaticalization of particles postposed to deictics and endophors 5.3.1. The enclitic particle -pse 5.3.2. Grammaticalization and īdem 5.3.3. The deictic particle -ce 5.3.3.1. The deictic “adverb” ecce 5.3.3.2. The enclitic particle -ce 5.3.4. The particle -met 5.3.5. The particle -te 5.3.6. The particle -pte 5.3.7. Conclusion 6. Grammaticalization and the formation of the verbal paradigm in Latin 6.1. Paradigmatization 6.1.1. Verbal periphrasis before the first Latin texts 6.1.2. The origins of reflexive verbs in the Romance languages 6.2. Transcategorization: From the nominal to the verbal form 6.3. The formation of the Latin infinitives 6.3.1. Grammaticalization of process nouns: From a nominal to a verbal paradigm 6.3.2. Locative and dative infinitives 6.4. The supine: From a nominal inflected free form to a verbal frozen grammaticalized form 6.4.1. Ambiguity in the intermediate stages between noun and verb 6.4.1.1. An “ablative supine”? 6.4.1.2. Ambiguous cases with the -tum supine 6.4.2. Supine and grammaticalization 6.4.2.1. Grammaticalization in the emergence of the supine 6.4.2.2. A different case: the -tiō nouns 6.4.2.3. A vanishing category 6.5. Grammaticalization in the formation of the future passive infinitive in ... tum īrī (datum īrī) 6.6. Decrease of the verbal paradigm: The opposite of paradigmatization 6.6.1. Neutralization of the opposition active vs. passive in the present infinitive 6.6.2. Neutralization of the oppositions in Latin participles; The emergence of a past active participle 6.6.2.1. Neutralization of the feature “passive” in the -tus, -a, -um participle 6.6.2.2. Neutralization of the aspecto-temporal properties of the present active participle 6.7. Conclusion 7. Auxiliarization 7.1. Grammaticalization of īre ‘go’ 7.2. Semantic weakening of the verb coepī (+ infin.) 7.3. The modal verb uolō ‘want’ 7.4. The evolution of faciō 7.4.1. Full morphologization in Sanskrit 7.4.2. Latin: a lexicalized element 7.4.3. The causative morpheme fac- and its allomorphs -fic- / -fec- 7.4.4. Desemantization of facere: A hyperonym 7.5. Semantic weakening of habeō in Latin 7.5.1. Lat. habeō + *-to- 7.5.1.1. The criteria for full grammaticalization of habeo + past passive participle in *-to- 7.5.1.2. Development of the construction “‘have’ + past passive participle” in the Romance languages 7.5.1.3. The uses and development of “habeo + past passive participle” in Latin 7.5.1.4. Conclusion 7.5.2. Habeō + infinitive 7.5.2.1. The origin of the construction “habeo + infinitive” 7.5.2.2. The formation of the future tense in Romance languages 7.5.2.3. Sense of “habeō + infinitive” in Latin 7.5.2.4. “Habeō + infinitive” in the Itinerarium Egeriae: A minor construction for necessity 7.5.2.5. “Habeō + infinitive” in Christian authors: A prophetic future 7.5.2.6. Early occurrences in some Romance languages 7.5.2.7. Grammaticalization and the Latin future: From analytic to synthetic periphrasis in cyclic renewal 8. Grammaticalization and modal verbs and adverbs 8.1. Licet as a subordinator 8.1.1. Specifics of the grammaticalization process 8.1.2. The progressive development of licet 8.1.3. Methodological considerations 8.1.4. Origin 8.2. The illocutionary adverbs scīlicet, uidelicet, īlicet 8.2.1. Scīlicet 8.2.1.1. The full expression “scīre licet + subordinate clause” 8.2.1.2. The main verb “scīlicet + subordinate clause” 8.2.1.3. Scīlicet as an illocutionary adverb 8.2.2. Videlicet 8.2.3. Ilicet 8.2.3.1. Two verbs in a free syntagm 8.2.3.2. Ilicet as a main verb governing a subordinate clause 8.2.3.3. Ilicet as a complete utterance by itself 8.2.4. Origin of scī-, uide-, ī-licet 8.2.4.1. An infinitive origin 8.2.4.2. An imperative origin? 8.2.4.3. Conclusion 8.3. The formation of indefinite pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs 8.4. The formation of concessive subordinators 8.5. The origin and evolution of modal verbs 8.6. Origin of licet 8.7. The origin of necesse est 8.8. Agglutination and downgrading: possum, potest 8.8.1. Reanalysis 8.8.2. Semantic evolution 8.8.3. From a personal to an impersonal verb 8.9. A semantic development from a concrete social situation to modality: dēbeō 8.10. Queō ‘can, be able’ and ne-queō ‘not be able’ 8.11. The illocutionary adverb nīmīrum 8.12. The modal adverb forsitan ‘perhaps’ 8.13. Conclusion 9. Grammaticalization and the formation of quantifiers 9.1. Grammaticalization of a noun as a quantifier 9.1.1. A noun denoting a body part 9.1.2. An inanimate noun denoting a small quantity 9.2. Grammaticalization of a prefix as a quasi-negative morpheme 9.3. Grammaticalization of a lexical or semi-lexical axiological (evaluative) adverb 9.3.1. The adverb ualdē: An intensive morpheme 9.3.2. The adverb bene: From axiological (evaluative) adverb to quantifier 9.3.3. The adverb male: A progressive grammaticalization 10. Conclusions 10.1. Grammaticalization: A slow process in along diachrony 10.2. Absence of congruence for the various criteria 10.3. Cyclic renewal 10.4. A preference given to morphologization and downgrading 10.5. Other cases of grammaticalization References Syntactic change in the history of Latin: Do new perspectives lead to new results? 1. Introduction 2. Determinants of syntactic change 2.1. Structural processes 2.2. Typological factors 2.3. Functional factors 2.4. Pragmatic factors 3. “Drift” 3.1. Nominal constituents 3.1.1. Word order 3.1.1.1. Facts about word order 3.1.1.2. Myths about word order 3.1.1.3. Discussion 3.1.2. Phonetic erosion of case-endings 3.1.3. Prepositional usage 3.1.4. From postposition to preposition 3.1.5. The development of definite and indefinite articles 3.2. Verbal constituents 3.2.1. The development of periphrastic auxiliaries 3.2.1.1. The perfect 3.2.1.2. The future 3.2.2. Discussion 3.3. Clausal constituents 3.3.1. Comparison 3.3.2. Complementation 4. Explanations and generalizations References Subject index Index of classical references