Nanomaterials and Neoplasms: Towards Clinical Applications

Description

Nanomaterials have the potential to shift the paradigm for the diagnosis and treatment of many diseases, especially neoplasms, because of the intriguing behaviors associated with their unique size-/shape-influenced chemical, physical, and physiological features. Currently, there is a huge imbalance between the several nanoplatforms reported in the literature and the few ones approved for clinical applications. This disequilibrium affects, in particular, plasmonic nanomaterials, which present no approved platforms and few candidates in clinical trials. This trend can be reversed by promoting collaborations among scientists from different fields as well as by improving the multidisciplinary background of researchers interested in this area. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Preface Chapter 1: Detecting and Destroying Cancer Cells in More Than One Way with Noble Metals and Different Confinement Properties on the Nanoscale 1.1: Photon Confinement: Imaging Probes, Photothermal Therapy, and Spectroscopic Detection 1.2: Molecular Confinement: Drug Delivery 1.3: Cellular Confinement: Intrinsic Pharmacodynamic Properties of Nanoparticles 1.4: Subcellular Confinement: Selectively Localizing Nanoparticles at Cancer Cell Nuclei 1.5: Conclusions 1.6: Challenges and Outlook Chapter 2: Engineered Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy 2.1: Introduction 2.2: Working with Different Types of Anticancer Drugs 2.2.1: Hydrophobic Drugs 2.2.2: Hydrophilic Drugs 2.2.3: Highly Charged Drugs 2.3: Methods for Controlled Release 2.3.1: Sustained Release 2.3.2: Diffusion-Controlled Release 2.3.3: Erosion-Controlled Release 2.3.4: Stimuli-Responsive Release 2.3.5: pH-Sensitive Release 2.3.6: Enzyme-Sensitive Release 2.3.7: Thermoresponsive Release 2.3.8: Photosensitive Release 2.4: In vitro and in vivo Delivery 2.4.1: In vitro Delivery 2.4.1.1: Endocytosis 2.4.1.2: Intracellular transport 2.4.1.3: Intracellular escape and degradation of nanoparticles 2.4.1.4: Multidrug resistance 2.4.2: In vivo Delivery 2.4.2.1: The EPR effect and passive tumor targeting 2.4.2.2: Active tumor targeting 2.4.2.3: Clearance by the MPS 2.4.2.4: Renal clearance 2.4.2.5: Pharmacokinetics and biodistribution 2.4.2.6: Biocompatibility and biodegradation 2.5: Perspectives on the Design of Nanoparticle Carriers 2.5.1: Natural versus Synthetic Materials 2.5.2: Size and Shape 2.5.3: Surface Properties 2.5.3.1: Surface charges 2.5.3.2: PEGylation 2.5.3.3: Polysaccharides 2.5.3.4: Conjugation with targeting ligands 2.5.4: Drug Loading 2.6: Case Studies 2.6.1: Protein–Drug Conjugates 2.6.2: Liposomes 2.6.3: Polymer Nanoparticles 2.6.4: Polymer–Lipid Hybrid Nanoparticles 2.6.5: Dendrimers 2.6.6: Hydrogels 2.6.7: Phase-Change Materials 2.6.8: Inorganic Nanoparticles 2.7: Summary and Outlook Chapter 3: Recent Progress in Cancer Thermal Therapy Using Gold Nanoparticles 3.1: Introduction to Gold Nanoparticles 3.2: Photothermal Therapy Using Gold Nanoparticles 3.3: Radiofrequency Hyperthermia with Gold Nanoparticles 3.4: Physical Investigations into Photothermal Heating with Gold Nanoparticles 3.5: Mechanisms of in vitro Cell Death due to Photothermal Treatment 3.6: Recent Nanoparticle Designs for in vitro Photothermal Treatment 3.7: Recent Nanoparticle Designs for in vivo Photothermal Treatment 3.8: In vivo Biodistribution of Gold Nanoparticles for Photothermal Therapy 3.9: Progression of Photothermal Therapy to Clinical Use 3.10: Conclusions and Perspectives Chapter 4: Gold Nanomaterials at Work in Biomedicine 4.1: Introduction 4.1.1: Gold Nanomaterials and Their Optical Properties 4.1.2: Other Properties of Gold Essential to Biomedical Applications 4.1.3: Gold Nanomaterials at Work in Biomedicine 4.2: Chemical Synthesis of Gold Nanomaterials 4.2.1: Gold Clusters 4.2.2: Conventional Gold Nanoparticles 4.2.3: Gold Nanospheres 4.2.4: Gold Nanorods 4.2.5: Gold Nanoplates 4.2.6: Gold Nanoshells 4.2.7: Gold Nanoboxes, Nanocages, and Nanoframes 4.2.8: Other Types of Gold Nanostructures 4.2.8.1: Polyhedral nanocrystals 4.2.8.2: Nanostructures with branched arms 4.2.9: Postsynthesis Surface Modification 4.3: Optical Properties of Gold Nanomaterials 4.3.1: Photoluminescence 4.3.2: Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance 4.3.2.1: The basics 4.3.2.2: Mie theory 4.3.2.3: Tuning resonance peaks into the near-infrared region 4.3.2.4: Measuring the optical cross sections 4.3.3: Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering 4.4: Biomedical Applications of Gold Nanomaterials 4.4.1: Optical Sensing 4.4.1.1: Sensing based on the photoluminescence of gold clusters 4.4.1.2: Sensing based on localized surface plasmon resonance 4.4.1.3: Sensing based on surface-enhanced Raman scattering 4.4.1.4: Sensing based on photoluminescence quenching 4.4.2: Optical Imaging 4.4.2.1: Imaging based on photoluminescence 4.4.2.2: Imaging based on elastic light scattering 4.4.2.3: Imaging based on inelastic light scattering 4.4.2.4: Imaging based on photothermal conversion 4.4.3: Other Imaging Modalities 4.4.3.1: X-ray CT imaging 4.4.3.2: PET imaging 4.4.3.3: Cerenkov luminescence imaging 4.4.4: Drug Delivery 4.4.4.1: Drug loading 4.4.4.2: Controlled release 4.4.4.3: Multidrug resistance 4.4.5: Cancer Therapy 4.4.5.1: Photothermal therapy 4.4.5.2: Photodynamic therapy 4.4.5.3: X-ray radiotherapy 4.4.5.4: Combined therapy 4.5: Pharmacokinetics, Biodistribution, Tumor Targeting, and Issues 4.5.1: In vitro versus in vivo Applications 4.5.2: Pharmacokinetics 4.5.3: Biodistribution and Tumor Targeting 4.5.4: Toxicity and Clearance Issues 4.5.4.1: Long-term toxicity 4.5.4.2: Clearance from the body 4.6: Concluding Remarks Chapter 5: The Nanomedicines Alliance: An Industry Perspective on Nanomedicines 5.1: Introduction Chapter 6: Nanomedicine(s) under the Microscope 6.1: Introduction 6.2: Terminology and Historical Background 6.2.1: The Field of Nanomedicine 6.2.2: Nanomedicines and Theranostics 6.3: The Present: Nanomedicines Today 6.3.1: The Genealogy 6.3.2: Products in the Market and Clinical Trial 6.3.3: New Drugs or Improved Drug Delivery? 6.3.4: General Considerations for Translation 6.3.4.1: Potency and payload 6.3.4.2: Safety 6.3.4.3: Metabolic fate 6.3.4.4: Pharmacokinetics 6.3.4.5: Whole-body pharmacokinetics and biodistribution 6.3.4.6: Cellular pharmacokinetics 6.3.4.7: Stability/drug release rates 6.3.4.8: Pharmacological evaluation and preclinical development 6.4: Tumor Targeting: A Case Analysis 6.4.1: Passive Targeting 6.4.2: Receptor-Mediated Targeting 6.4.3: Preclinical Anticancer Models and Translational Challenges 6.4.4: Nanomedicine Biomarkers 6.5: The Future: Nanomedicines of Tomorrow? 6.5.1: Emerging Materials 6.5.1.1: Fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and nanohorns 6.5.1.2: Inorganic nanosized particles 6.5.1.3: Gold 6.5.1.4: Silver 6.5.1.5: Iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONS) 6.5.1.6: Silicon-based nanoparticles 6.5.1.7: Quantum dots 6.5.1.8: Polymer conjugates, micelles, and polymeric nanoparticles 6.5.1.9: Dendrimers 6.5.1.10: Polymeric nanoparticles 6.5.1.11: Liposomes and lipidic and albumin nanoparticles 6.5.1.12: Multicomponent systems, imaging agents, and theranostics 6.5.2: Biological Rationale for Design: What’s New? 6.5.3: Defining Structure–Activity Relationships: Improved Tools? 6.6: Translating Nanomedicines to Practice 6.6.1: New Nanomedicine Regulation? 6.6.2: Embracing Modern Tools for Development 6.6.3: The Art of Communication 6.7: Conclusions Chapter 7: Imaging Nano–Bio Interactions in the Kidney: Toward a Better Understanding of Nanoparticle Clearance Chapter 8: Nanomaterials for Theranostics: Recent Advances and Future Challenges 8.1: Introduction 8.1.1: What Are the Key Biological Processes Pertinent to Diseases, and How Can These Processes Be Monitored? 8.1.2: What Is the Core Advantage of in vivo Imaging over in vitro Assays? 8.1.3: What Are the Key Challenges That Need to Be Addressed to Overcome the Fundamental Limitations of in vivo Imaging? 8.2: Major Cancer Signaling Pathways and the Concept of Targeted Delivery 8.3: Design of Theranostic Nanoparticles 8.3.1: Biomedical Payloads 8.3.1.1: Imaging 8.3.1.2: Therapeutics 8.3.2: Carrier 8.3.2.1: Polymers 8.3.2.2: Lipids 8.3.2.3: Dendrimers 8.3.2.4: Inorganic nanocarriers 8.3.3: Surface Modifiers 8.4: Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Properties of Nanomaterial-Based Therapy 8.5: Theranostic Nanomaterials 8.5.1: Magnetic Nanoparticles 8.5.1.1: Magnetic nanoparticles as imaging agents 8.5.1.2: Magnetic nanoparticles as drug delivery vehicles 8.5.1.3: Magnetic nanoparticles as hyperthermal agents 8.5.1.4: Magnetic nanoparticles as anticancer drugs 8.5.2: Quantum Dots (QDs) 8.5.2.1: Strategies for reduced RES uptake 8.5.2.2: Anticancer drug and other chemical drug delivery 8.5.2.3: Gene delivery 8.5.3: Metal Nanoparticles 8.5.3.1: Metal nanoparticle as imaging agent 8.5.3.2: Metal nanoparticle as photothermal agent 8.5.3.3: Drug release triggered by metal nanoparticle-based hyperthermia 8.5.4: Upconversion Nanoparticles (UCNPs) 8.5.4.1: Imaging agent 8.5.4.2: Photosensitizer activator 8.5.5: Silica and Other Inorganic Nanomaterials 8.5.5.1: Silica 8.5.5.2: Calcium phosphate 8.5.5.3: Apatite 8.5.5.4: Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) 8.5.6: Carbon-Based Nanomaterials 8.5.6.1: Carbon nanomaterials as carrier 8.5.6.2: Carbon materials for photothermal therapy 8.6: Summary and Outlook Chapter 9: Metabolism of Nanomaterials in vivo: Blood Circulation and Organ Clearance 9.1: Introduction 9.2: Blood Circulation 9.2.1: Effects of the Physioanatomical Features of Vasculature 9.2.2: Effects of the Physicochemical Characteristics of NMs 9.2.3: Effects of the Interactions between NMs and the Biomicroenvironment 9.3: Organ Clearance of Nanomaterials 9.3.1: Pulmonary Clearance of Nanomaterials 9.3.2: Hepatic Clearance of Nanomaterials 9.3.3: Renal Clearance of Nanomaterials 9.4: Conclusion and Outlook Index