Pediatric Neuroimaging

Description

This newest addition of the comprehensive Pediatric Neuroimaging combines thousands of images with detailed textual descriptions to help you diagnose a wide range of brain, spinal, and head and neck disorders in the pediatric patient. The authors have chosen a clear, concise writing style that encourages you to grasp information quickly. By dealing with a broad range of disorders, from everyday problems to less common ones, and explaining how to recognize and differentiate them, this book offers you the opportunity to provide a concise differential diagnosis on most patients you are likely to encounter in your practice. Packed with more than 2,500 high-quality illustrations, drawings, photographs, and figures. Emphasizes CT and MRI imagery—widely regarded as the optimal modalities for assessing and diagnosing children. Most chapters organized by disease group, and describe the pathologic bases of each disorder to illustrate important clinical contexts. Broadly discusses common imaging techniques in children, as well as images of normal childhood development in the brain, skull, and spine. Prominently displayed lists of disorders help quickly identify a disorder within the text. Enrich Your eBook Reading Experience with Enhanced Video, Audio and Interactive Capabilities! Read directly on your preferred device(s), such as computer, tablet, or smartphone Easily convert to audiobook, powering your content with natural language text-to-speech Adapt for unique reading needs, supporting learning disabilities, visual/auditory impairments, second-language or literacy challenges, and more Features: Packed with more than 2,500 high-quality illustrations, drawings, photographs, and figures. Emphasizes CT and MRI imagery—widely regarded as the optimal modalities for assessing and diagnosing children. Most chapters organized by disease group, and describe the pathologic bases of each disorder to illustrate important clinical contexts. Broadly discusses common imaging techniques in children, as well as images of normal childhood development in the brain, skull, and spine. Prominently displayed lists of disorders help quickly identify a disorder within the text. Enrich Your eBook Reading Experience with Enhanced Video, Audio and Interactive Capabilities! Read directly on your preferred device(s), such as computer, tablet, or smartphone Easily convert to audiobook, powering your content with natural language text-to-speech Adapt for unique reading needs, supporting learning disabilities, visual/auditory impairments, second-language or literacy challenges, and more Pediatric Neuroimaging, 6e......Page 1 Title Page......Page 2 Copyright......Page 3 Dedication......Page 4 Contributors......Page 5 Preface......Page 7 Preface to the First Edition......Page 9 List of Disorders......Page 10 Contents......Page 21 Neonates......Page 25 Monitoring......Page 26 Contrast Media......Page 27 Ultrasound......Page 28 Computed Tomography......Page 29 Brain......Page 30 Vascular Imaging......Page 32 Spine......Page 33 Fetal MRI......Page 34 Abbreviated Protocols......Page 35 Diffusion......Page 36 Perfusion......Page 37 CSF Flow......Page 38 MR Spectroscopy......Page 39 Summary......Page 40 Embryology......Page 47 Imaging of the Preterm Brain (Premature Infant and Fetus)......Page 49 Grading of Brain Maturation in Premature Infants......Page 63 Anatomic MRI of Postnatal Brain Development......Page 68 T1-Weighted Images......Page 69 T2-Weighted Images......Page 71 Terminal Zones......Page 79 Milestones......Page 84 Normal Postnatal MR Development of the Corpus Callosum......Page 85 Normal MR Development of the Pituitary Gland......Page 89 The Cranial Fontanelles and Sutures......Page 90 Normal Development of Brain Mineralization......Page 91 Embryology......Page 92 CT of Spine Development......Page 93 MR of Spine Development......Page 94 The Normal MR Spectrum......Page 98 Peaks seen on long echo time (long TE) spectra......Page 99 Peaks seen on short echo time (short TE) spectra......Page 101 Changes in Spectra with Brain Maturation......Page 103 Diffusion Imaging and Tractography......Page 105 Diffusion Imaging of Brain Maturation......Page 106 Diffusion Tensor Imaging of Brain Maturation and the Connectome......Page 107 Tractography......Page 114 Perfusion Imaging......Page 115 Functional MR Imaging......Page 116 Introduction......Page 129 Imaging Techniques in Metabolic Disorders......Page 135 A Simple Pattern Approach to Metabolic Disease......Page 136 White Matter Disorders......Page 137 Deeper Analysis of Toxic/Metabolic/Inflammatory Diseases......Page 138 Age of Onset......Page 139 Seizures and metabolic epilepsy......Page 140 Stroke or stroke-like clinical presentation......Page 141 Metachromatic leukodystrophy......Page 142 Globoid cell leukodystrophy (Krabbe disease)......Page 143 Classic X-linked adrenal leukodystrophy/Adrenomyeloneuropathy/Acyl-CoA oxidase deficiency......Page 145 Leukoencephalopathy with vanishing white matter......Page 154 Giant axonal neuropathy......Page 157 Phenylketonuria......Page 158 Maple syrup urine disease......Page 159 Errors affecting cobalamin (vitamin B12) metabolism......Page 164 Methionine adenosyltransferase I/III deficiency......Page 165 X-Linked α-thalassemia/mental retardation syndrome......Page 166 Autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia with thin corpus callosum......Page 167 Sjögren-Larsson syndrome......Page 169 Brain injury from radiation and chemotherapy......Page 170 Occlusive vasculopathy secondary to radiation......Page 171 Neoplasia secondary to irradiation......Page 173 Small (“lacunar”) cysts......Page 175 White matter injury secondary to chemotherapeutic agents......Page 176 Megaloencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts......Page 178 MLC phenotypes......Page 179 Physiology/pathology/imaging......Page 180 Cystic leukoencephalopathy without megaloencephaly......Page 183 Aicardi-Goutières syndrome......Page 184 Cockayne syndrome......Page 185 Galactosemia......Page 186 Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease......Page 187 Hypomyelination with congenital cataracts......Page 191 Hypomyelination with atrophy of the basal ganglia and cerebellum......Page 192 Pol III–related leukodystrophies......Page 193 Hypomyelination with mutations of the multisynthetase complex......Page 194 Sialic acid storage diseases......Page 195 Fucosidosis......Page 196 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme a lyase deficiency......Page 198 Congenital white matter hypoplasia/familial spastic paraplegia......Page 201 Multiple sclerosis......Page 202 Standard MR imaging in MS......Page 203 Neuromyelitis optica spectrum of disorders......Page 206 Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis......Page 209 Acute hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis......Page 212 Systemic lupus erythematosus......Page 213 Other autoimmune encephalopathies......Page 215 Differential diagnosis of autoimmune disorders......Page 217 Osmotic demyelination syndrome in childhood......Page 218 Solvent abuse......Page 219 Neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation......Page 220 Pantothenate kinase–associated neuropathy (neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation 1, formerly Hallervorden-Spatz disease)......Page 221 Juvenile Huntington disease......Page 222 Isovaleric acidemia......Page 227 Creatine deficiency syndromes......Page 228 Infantile beriberi/Wernicke encephalopathy......Page 230 Hemolytic–Uremic syndrome......Page 232 Sydenham chorea......Page 233 Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis......Page 235 Infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy/NBIA2A/PLAN......Page 238 Niemann-Pick disease......Page 239 Rett syndrome......Page 240 Toxins......Page 241 Canavan Disease (Aspartoacylase Deficiency, Spongiform Leukodystrophy)......Page 242 Alexander Disease (Fibrinoid Leukodystrophy)......Page 246 Mucopolysaccharidoses......Page 249 Multiple sulfatase deficiency......Page 255 Peroxisomal biogenesis disorders......Page 256 Imaging differential diagnosis of peroxisomal biogenesis disorders......Page 259 D-Bifunctional protein deficiency......Page 260 Rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata......Page 261 Mitochondrial Disorders......Page 262 Components of the mitochondrial respiratory chain......Page 265 Disorders causing Leigh syndrome......Page 267 Mitochondrial encephalomyopathy with lactic acidosis and stroke-like episodes......Page 275 Myoclonic epilepsy with ragged red fibers......Page 276 Kearns-Sayre syndrome/progressive external ophthalmoplegia......Page 277 Mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy......Page 278 Complex I deficiency secondary to NUBPL mutation......Page 279 Trichopoliodystrophy (Menkes disease)......Page 281 Glutaric aciduria type I (glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency)......Page 283 Multiple acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (glutaric aciduria type II)......Page 284 Nonspecific mitochondrial disorders......Page 286 Pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency......Page 287 Disorders of the Urea Cycle and Ammonia......Page 288 Methylmalonic and Propionic Acidemias......Page 289 GM1 and GM2 (Tay-Sachs and Sandhoff Diseases) Gangliosidoses......Page 291 L-2-Hydroxyglutaric Aciduria......Page 294 Acute Necrotizing Encephalitis......Page 295 3-Methylglutaconic Aciduria......Page 299 Molybdenum Cofactor Deficiency......Page 302 Isolated Sulfite Oxidase Deficiency......Page 303 Toxin Ingestions......Page 305 Differentiation of Cerebellar Atrophy from Hypoplasia......Page 306 Cerebellar Ataxias......Page 309 Friedreich ataxia......Page 311 Ataxia with Oculomotor Apraxia, Types 1, 2, and 3......Page 312 Marinesco-Sjögren Syndrome......Page 313 Coenzyme Q10 deficiency......Page 314 Mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome 7......Page 315 Pontocerebellar Hypoplasias......Page 316 Mevalonate Kinase Deficiency (Mevalonic Aciduria)......Page 319 Progressive Encephalopathy with Edema, Hypsarrhythmia, and Optic Atrophy (PEHO)......Page 320 Dentatorubral and Pallidoluysian Atrophy......Page 321 Cerebellar Degeneration from Kinesin Mutations......Page 322 Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis......Page 323 Spinocerebellar Ataxias......Page 324 Wolfram Syndrome......Page 325 X-linked Nonprogressive Congenital Cerebellar Hypoplasias and Dysgeneses......Page 326 Revesz Syndrome......Page 327 Basic Patterns of Brain Destruction......Page 371 Hydranencephaly......Page 372 Encephalomalacia......Page 374 Hypoxic–Ischemic–Inflammatory Brain Injury......Page 377 Localized Infarctions......Page 378 Manifestations and Causes of Infarctions in Children......Page 379 Choice of Radiologic Study in Pediatric Stroke......Page 383 Imaging Appearances of Arterial Infarctions in Children......Page 384 Infarction Secondary to Venous Occlusion......Page 391 Diffuse Ischemic or Inflammatory Brain Injury......Page 398 Severity of hypotension......Page 400 Maturity of the brain......Page 402 Neurologic sequelae of brain injury in the prematurely born neonate......Page 404 Morphological effects upon brains of prematurely born neonates......Page 405 Periventricular and intraventricular hemorrhage......Page 406 Periventricular venous infarctions and hemorrhages......Page 407 White matter injury......Page 408 Periventricular and intraventricular hemorrhage......Page 413 Periventricular hemorrhagic infarctions......Page 415 White matter injury of prematurity......Page 416 Cerebellar injury in premature neonates......Page 424 Profound hypotension or circulatory arrest in premature infants......Page 425 Imaging choices in premature neonates......Page 429 Parasagittal/watershed injury......Page 433 Profound hypotension......Page 441 Timing of appearance of imaging findings......Page 442 Effects of therapeutic hypothermia (brain cooling)......Page 453 Timing of studies......Page 454 Parenchymal and intraventricular hemorrhage in the term neonate......Page 455 Diffuse Ischemic Injury in Older Infants and Children......Page 462 CNS Injury in Multiple Pregnancies......Page 464 Ischemic Brain Injury in Multiple Pregnancies......Page 466 Neonatal Hypoglycemia......Page 471 Bilirubin Encephalopathy (Kernicterus)......Page 474 Hypernatremic Dehydration......Page 476 CNS Trauma in Infancy and Childhood......Page 478 Spinal Cord Injury......Page 479 Nerve Root and Brachial Plexus Injuries......Page 481 Extracranial birth trauma......Page 482 Skull Fractures......Page 483 Traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage in the Newborn......Page 486 Tentorial laceration and occipital osteodiastasis......Page 487 Falx laceration and superficial cerebral vein rupture......Page 490 Postnatal Trauma......Page 492 Spinal Trauma......Page 495 Injuries in young children......Page 497 Adolescent injuries......Page 499 Torticollis/rotational deformities of C1-C2......Page 501 Back pain in children......Page 502 Extraparenchymal hematomas......Page 503 Subarachnoid hemorrhage......Page 507 Injury to the brain parenchyma......Page 510 Associated injuries......Page 516 Clinical, Mechanistic, and Epidemiological Aspects......Page 517 Choice of Radiological Exams......Page 518 Imaging Findings......Page 520 Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (Concussion)......Page 530 Concepts: Patterning, Pathways, and Basic Embryology......Page 564 Early Brain Development......Page 566 Anatomy and Embryology......Page 568 Spectrum of Commissural Abnormalities......Page 572 Associated Anomalies Secondary to Hemispheric Anomalies and Syndromes......Page 576 Anatomic Sequelae of Callosal Anomalies......Page 585 Callosal Agenesis with Interhemispheric Cyst......Page 588 Diagnosis of Callosal Agenesis/Dysgenesis in the Fetus......Page 590 Malformations of Cortical Development......Page 591 Development of the cerebral cortex......Page 592 Causes of malformations of cortical development......Page 598 Special imaging techniques for cortical malformations......Page 599 Microcephalies......Page 602 Actin- or tubulinopathies......Page 605 Cortical dysgenesis with abnormal proliferation (too many cells/abnormal cell types) but without neoplasia......Page 607 Cortical dysgenesis with normal brain size: focal cortical dysplasias......Page 610 Dysplasias with abnormal lamination but normal-appearing neurons (FCD 1a and 1b)......Page 611 Dysplasias with dysplastic neurons (also called focal transmantle cortical dysplasia, bottom of sulcus dysplasia, focal cortical dysplasia types IIa, IIb)......Page 612 Megaloencephaly: hemimegalencephaly (unilateral megalencephaly, HME) and dysplastic megalencephaly......Page 618 Cortical dysgenesis with abnormal cell proliferation and neoplasia, including dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumor (DNET), ganglioglioma, and gangliocytoma......Page 622 Periventricular heterotopia......Page 623 Focal subcortical heterotopia......Page 630 Anterior predominant, posterior predominant, or diffuse classic (four-layered) lissencephaly (LIS) and subcortical band heterotopia (SBH), associated with mutations of tubulin or microtubule-associated protein mutations......Page 632 Lissencephaly (the agyria-pachygyria complex)......Page 633 Lissencephaly due to mutations of actins, tubulins, and microtubule-associated proteins......Page 636 Band heterotopia/double cortex......Page 641 Lissencephaly with cerebellar hypoplasia......Page 642 Lissencephaly associated with ARX mutations......Page 643 Lissencephaly Secondary to Mutations in the Reelin (RELN) Signaling Pathway......Page 647 Malformations due to abnormal pial basement membrane formation: polymicrogyria, cobblestone malformations, tubulinopathies, and Zika-associated cortical malformations......Page 648 Patients with cobblestone malformations and congenital muscular dystrophies......Page 649 Walker-Warburg phenotype......Page 651 Fukuyama congenital muscular dystrophy phenotype......Page 653 Muscle–eye–brain phenotype......Page 654 GPR56-related cobblestone malformation (bilateral frontoparietal polymicrogyria)......Page 655 Occipital cobblestone malformations: laminin mutations......Page 661 Other congenital muscular dystrophy syndromes......Page 663 Polymicrogyria without congenital muscular dystrophy......Page 664 Imaging of polymicrogyria without congenital muscular dystrophy......Page 665 Bilateral Perisylvian Polymicrogyria......Page 667 Macrocephaly-Polymicrogyria Syndromes Associated with PI3K/AKT/MTOR Pathway Mutations......Page 668 Other Bilateral Polymicrogyria Syndromes......Page 670 Schizencephaly......Page 671 Dysgyria associated with tubulin mutations......Page 676 Holoprosencephaly......Page 677 Semilobar holoprosencephaly......Page 678 Lobar holoprosencephaly......Page 681 Syntelencephaly (Middle Interhemispheric Variant)......Page 682 Arrhinia/Arrhinencephaly......Page 685 Septooptic Dysplasia......Page 690 Anomalies of the Hypothalamic–Pituitary Axis......Page 694 Embryology......Page 695 Pituitary Dwarfism......Page 697 Kallmann Syndrome (Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism)......Page 700 Hypothalamic Dysgenesis and Adhesions......Page 701 Embryology of the Eye and Orbit......Page 702 Microphthalmia, anophthalmia, and colobomas......Page 705 Persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous......Page 708 Retinopathy of prematurity......Page 709 Other congenital ocular anomalies......Page 710 Patterning......Page 711 Cell Proliferation and Migration......Page 712 Interactions of Brain and Meninges......Page 714 Normal Appearance of the Cerebellum and Brain Stem on MRI......Page 715 Disconnection syndromes......Page 717 Cerebellar hypoplasia......Page 718 Brainstem effects of dorsoventral patterning defects......Page 720 Rhombencephalosynapsis......Page 722 Mesenchymal–neuroepithelial signaling defects associated with mid-hindbrain malformations: the Dandy-Walker complex......Page 724 Lhermitte-Duclos disease/Cowden syndrome (dysplastic cerebellar gangliocytoma)......Page 728 Cerebellar Hypoplasia Due to CASK Mutations......Page 731 Malformations of neuronal migration that prominently affect the brain stem and cerebellum......Page 733 Joubert syndrome and related disorders with “molar tooth” malformation caused by mutation of ciliary proteins......Page 734 Congenital fibrosis of extraocular muscles......Page 738 Tectal enlargement......Page 739 Cerebellar nodular heterotopia with overlying dysgenesis......Page 740 Diffuse and unilateral cerebellar dysgenesis (cerebellar foliation anomalies/hypoplasia)......Page 741 Pontine tegmental cap dysplasia......Page 746 Medullary tegmental caps with callosal agenesis/hypogenesis......Page 747 Chiari I Deformity......Page 748 Chiari II Malformation......Page 753 Chiari III Malformations......Page 760 Cephaloceles and Other Calvarial and Skull Base Defects......Page 761 Causation and classification of cephaloceles......Page 762 Repaired cephaloceles......Page 763 Embryology......Page 767 Clinical and Imaging Aspects......Page 770 Parietal and atretic cephaloceles......Page 773 Nasopharyngeal cephaloceles......Page 779 Fontanelle dermoids and other calvarial masses of childhood......Page 782 Parietal Foramina and Enlarged Parietal Foramina......Page 784 Intracranial Lipomas......Page 787 Pathologic Characteristics......Page 790 Clinical Characteristics......Page 791 Imaging Characteristics......Page 793 Embyrology of the Bones of the Face and Skull......Page 799 Diagnosis of Craniosynostosis......Page 801 Radiology of synostosis......Page 804 Background......Page 805 Imaging of craniosynostosis syndromes......Page 807 Trisomy 21......Page 812 Trisomy 13......Page 818 Wolf-Hirschhorn Syndrome......Page 819 Gilbert Vézina and A. James Barkovich......Page 859 Neurofibromatosis Type 1......Page 860 Clinical Manifestations......Page 861 Optic Pathway Gliomas......Page 863 Other Gliomas and Tumor-Like Conditions......Page 868 White Matter Abnormalities and Characteristic Hyperintense T2 Lesions......Page 872 Vascular Dysplasia......Page 874 Cranial Nerve Tumors......Page 876 Neurofibromas and Plexiform Neurofibromas......Page 877 Scoliosis and Intramedullary Tumors......Page 878 Dural Dysplasia and Meningoceles......Page 880 Nerve Sheath and Other Soft Tissue Tumors......Page 881 Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumor......Page 882 Clinical Manifestations......Page 884 Imaging of Intracranial Manifestations......Page 886 Imaging of Spinal Manifestations......Page 888 Clinical Manifestations......Page 890 Ocular Manifestations......Page 892 Subependymal Nodules......Page 893 Subependymal Giant Cell Astrocytomas......Page 894 Cerebral Tubers (Hamartomas)......Page 898 White Matter Lesions......Page 901 Vascular Lesions......Page 903 Non-CNS Manifestations......Page 904 Intracranial Pathology......Page 905 Brain......Page 906 Eye Anomalies......Page 910 Ocular Manifestations......Page 911 Brain and Spinal Cord Manifestations......Page 912 Papillary Cystadenomas of the Endolymphatic Sac......Page 913 Visceral Manifestations......Page 914 Clinical Manifestations......Page 915 Pathological and Neuroimaging Manifestations......Page 916 Clinical Manifestations......Page 917 Neuroimaging Manifestations......Page 918 Clinical Manifestations......Page 921 Clinical Manifestations......Page 922 Neuropathological and Neuroimaging Manifestations......Page 923 Neuroimaging Manifestations......Page 924 Clinical Manifestations......Page 927 Neuroimaging Manifestations......Page 928 Chédiak-Higashi Syndrome......Page 930 Clinical Manifestations......Page 931 Ocular and Brain Manifestations......Page 932 Proteus Syndrome......Page 934 Bannayan-Riley-Ruvalcaba Syndrome......Page 936 Incidence and Severity of Brain Tumors in Children......Page 955 Changing Concepts on the Biology of Brain Tumors......Page 956 Techniques of Imaging Pediatric Brain Tumors......Page 957 Imaging Characteristics Used to Identify Brain Tumors......Page 960 Posterior Fossa Tumors......Page 971 Molecular subgroups......Page 972 Clinical presentation......Page 973 Imaging studies......Page 974 Atypical Teratoid/Rhabdoid Tumor of Infancy and Childhood......Page 981 Embryonal Tumor with Multilayered Rosettes......Page 982 Cerebellar Astrocytoma......Page 983 Imaging studies......Page 985 Ependymomas......Page 987 Pathology......Page 988 Proton MR spectroscopy of medulloblastomas, cerebellar astrocytomas, and ependymomas......Page 996 General concepts......Page 997 Diffuse versus focal brainstem gliomas......Page 998 Pontine tumors......Page 1002 Midbrain tumors......Page 1005 Brain stem tumors associated with neurofibromatosis type 1......Page 1006 Differential diagnosis of brainstem tumors......Page 1008 Hemangioblastoma......Page 1009 Pathology......Page 1010 Imaging studies......Page 1011 Imaging studies......Page 1012 Dermoids and epidermoids: presentation and pathology......Page 1013 Dermoids......Page 1015 Enteric (enterogenous) cysts......Page 1016 Teratomas......Page 1017 Imaging studies......Page 1018 Meningiomas......Page 1021 Langerhans cell histiocytosis......Page 1022 Bone involvement in the face and head......Page 1023 Involvement of the brain......Page 1024 Ecchordosis physaliphora......Page 1026 Chordoma......Page 1027 Chondrosarcomas......Page 1030 Neuroblastoma......Page 1031 Ewing sarcoma......Page 1033 Sellar and Suprasellar Tumors......Page 1034 Craniopharyngioma......Page 1036 Suprasellar Pilocytic Astrocytomas (Optic–Hypothalamic Gliomas)......Page 1041 Pathology......Page 1042 Molecular genetics......Page 1043 Suprasellar Germ Cell Tumors......Page 1049 Imaging characteristics......Page 1050 Pituitary Adenomas......Page 1055 Hypothalamic hamartomas (hamartomas of the tuber cinereum)......Page 1060 Imaging findings......Page 1061 Langerhans cell histiocytosis......Page 1062 Rathke cleft cysts......Page 1067 Hemispheric Tumors......Page 1069 Pilocytic astrocytomas......Page 1070 Diffuse astrocytoma......Page 1072 High-grade astrocytomas......Page 1074 Oligodendrogliomas......Page 1077 Gliomatosis cerebri......Page 1081 Supratentorial Ependymomas......Page 1082 Hemispheric primitive neuroectodermal tumor......Page 1086 Hemispheric medulloepithelioma......Page 1089 Hemispheric atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor......Page 1090 Astroblastoma......Page 1093 Neuroglial hamartomas (glioneuronal heterotopia)......Page 1094 Plasma cell granulomas (inflammatory pseudotumors)......Page 1095 Primarily Cortical Tumors (Epilepsy-Associated Tumors)......Page 1096 Dysembryoplastic Neuroepithelial Tumor......Page 1097 Gangliogliomas/Gangliocytomas......Page 1099 Desmoplastic Infantile Ganglioglioma (Desmoplastic Astrocytoma of Infancy)......Page 1103 Pleomorphic Xanthoastrocytoma......Page 1104 Meningioangiomatosis......Page 1106 Low-Grade Gliomas of the Thalamus and Basal Ganglia......Page 1108 Bilateral thalamic LGG......Page 1111 High-Grade Gliomas of the Thalamus and Basal Ganglia......Page 1112 Thalamic Oligodendrogliomas......Page 1114 Germ Cell Tumors of the Basal Ganglia......Page 1115 Pineal Region Masses......Page 1118 Pineal and Bifocal Germinomas......Page 1121 Teratomas......Page 1125 Pineal Parenchymal Tumors......Page 1126 Pineal Region Gliomas......Page 1128 Papillary tumors of the pineal region......Page 1130 Pineal Dermoids and Epidermoids......Page 1131 Pineal Cysts......Page 1133 Subependymal Giant Cell Astrocytoma......Page 1134 Choroid plexus papilloma......Page 1135 Choroid plexus carcinoma......Page 1138 Choroid plexus villous hyperplasia......Page 1139 Other pediatric supratentorial ventricular tumors......Page 1141 Tumors of the meninges......Page 1145 Infantile myofibromatosis......Page 1146 Leukemia and lymphoma......Page 1147 Langerhans cell histiocytosis......Page 1148 Calvarial tumors......Page 1151 Brain Tumors in the First Year of Life......Page 1153 Radiation-Induced Tumors of the Central Nervous System......Page 1155 Retinoblastoma......Page 1156 Differential Diagnosis of Ocular Masses......Page 1159 Vascular Masses......Page 1162 Combined venolymphatic malformations: lymphatic malformations (lymphangiomas) and venous malformations (cavernous hemangiomas)......Page 1163 Orbital varices......Page 1166 Leukemia (granulocytic sarcoma, chloroma)......Page 1167 Plexiform neurofibroma......Page 1168 Masses of the Face and Neck......Page 1170 Branchial cleft cysts......Page 1172 Thymic cysts......Page 1175 Venolymphatic malformations......Page 1176 Infantile and congenital hemangiomas......Page 1181 Neurofibromas and schwannomas......Page 1182 Teratomas......Page 1184 Rhabdomyosarcomas/rhabdomyomas......Page 1187 Nasopharyngeal carcinoma......Page 1188 Cervical lymphadenitis......Page 1193 Neuroblastoma......Page 1195 Fibrous dysplasia of the skull base......Page 1196 Introduction......Page 1224 The ventricles......Page 1225 Vessels and choroid plexuses......Page 1226 Ependyma......Page 1227 Contribution of the brain parenchyma......Page 1228 Parenchymal absorption......Page 1229 CSF production and absorption mismatch......Page 1230 Consequences of a compliance decrease......Page 1231 Near-Wall Cilia-Related Flow......Page 1233 Clinical Presentation......Page 1234 MRI and mature hydrocephalic brain......Page 1235 MRI and immature hydrocephalic brain......Page 1237 MRI and fetal hydrocephalic brain......Page 1238 CT Scanning......Page 1239 Imaging Features of Hydrocephalus......Page 1241 The Ventricular System......Page 1242 The Extracerebral Spaces......Page 1251 Pathophysiology......Page 1254 Periventricular interstitial edema......Page 1255 Circulatory arrest......Page 1256 Specific Etiopathogenic Contexts......Page 1257 Aqueductal stenosis......Page 1258 Other malformative hydrocephalus......Page 1260 Acute ventricular obstructive hydrocephalus (high intracranial pressure)......Page 1261 Posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus......Page 1264 Extraventricular obstructive hydrocephalus......Page 1268 Pathophysiologic considerations......Page 1269 Venous hypertension......Page 1271 Acute nonobstructive hydrocephalus......Page 1274 Pathophysiologic considerations......Page 1280 Imaging hydrocephalus in the fetus......Page 1281 Myelomeningocele, Chiari II complex, and hydrocephalus in the fetus......Page 1284 Clinical Data......Page 1285 Ventriculoperitoneal Shunts......Page 1286 Early Follow-up: Response to Treatment......Page 1287 Shunt malfunction......Page 1290 Shunt infections......Page 1292 Subdural collections......Page 1293 Slit ventricle syndrome......Page 1296 Intracranial hypotension and craniocerebral disproportion......Page 1298 Conclusion......Page 1301 Gastrulation and Neurulation......Page 1311 Canalization and Retrogressive Differentiation......Page 1314 Formation of the Vertebral Column......Page 1315 Neurulation Anomalies......Page 1316 Clinical Manifestations of Spinal Anomalies......Page 1317 Counting Anomalous Vertebrae......Page 1318 Nondisjunction (Open Spinal Dysraphism: Myelocele and Myelomeningocele)......Page 1319 HemiOSD......Page 1322 Postoperative complications......Page 1323 The Chiari II malformation......Page 1327 Late/Incomplete Disjunction: Dorsal Dermal Sinuses and Sinus-Like Tracts (Also Considered as a Complex Spinal Dysraphism)......Page 1328 Pathology......Page 1329 Imaging......Page 1330 Late/Incomplete Disjunction: Cervical (Nonterminal) Myelocystocele and Cervical (Nonterminal) Myelocele (May Also Be Considered as CSD with a Subcutaneous Mass)......Page 1332 Concepts of Lipomas......Page 1335 Intradural Lipomas (Also Classified as a Simple Dysraphic State)......Page 1338 Description and presentation......Page 1340 Imaging characteristics......Page 1341 Associated malformations......Page 1344 Normal Conus Medullaris and Filum Terminale......Page 1345 The Terminal Ventricle......Page 1348 Anomalies of the Filum Terminale/Tight Filum Terminale (A Simple Spinal Dysraphism)......Page 1349 Syndrome of Caudal Regression (A Complex Spinal Dysraphism)......Page 1352 Terminal Myelocystocele (A Closed Spinal Dysraphism with a Subcutaneous Mass)......Page 1356 Anterior Sacral Meningocele......Page 1357 Sacrococcygeal Teratoma......Page 1358 Classification......Page 1361 Intraspinal Enteric Cysts (Neurenteric Cysts, Endodermal Cysts)......Page 1362 Definition......Page 1364 Embryology......Page 1365 Pathology and Imaging......Page 1366 Malformations of Unknown Origin......Page 1370 Segmental Spinal Dysgenesis (A Complex Spinal Dysraphism)......Page 1373 Dorsal Meningocele (A Closed Spinal Dysraphism with a Subcutaneous Mass)......Page 1374 Thoracic Lateral Meningocele......Page 1375 Lumbar Lateral Meningocele......Page 1376 Teratoma......Page 1377 Inclusion Cysts (Dermoids and Epidermoids)......Page 1379 Definition......Page 1381 Classification and Causes......Page 1382 Theories of Pathogenesis......Page 1385 Imaging......Page 1389 General Imaging Characteristics of Spinal Tumors......Page 1402 Clinical Presentation......Page 1403 Imaging......Page 1404 Extramedullary Tumors......Page 1409 CSF Dissemination of Intracranial Neoplasms......Page 1410 Aneurysmal Bone Cyst......Page 1412 Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis......Page 1414 Osteogenic Sarcoma......Page 1417 Chordoma......Page 1418 Osteoblastoma......Page 1419 Other Vertebral Tumors......Page 1420 Clinical and imaging characteristics......Page 1421 Classification......Page 1424 Extraspinal Tumors Invading the Epidural Space......Page 1425 Neuroblastoma......Page 1426 Leukemia and Lymphoma......Page 1429 Infantile Hemangioma......Page 1430 Extramedullary Hematopoiesis......Page 1431 Congenital Spinal Tumors......Page 1434 Introduction......Page 1440 General Concepts......Page 1441 Cytomegalovirus......Page 1442 Imaging......Page 1443 Herpes Simplex Virus: Congenital and Neonatal Infections......Page 1451 Imaging......Page 1452 Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus......Page 1454 Imaging......Page 1457 Rubella Virus......Page 1458 Imaging......Page 1461 Toxoplasma gondii......Page 1462 Imaging......Page 1463 Varicella-Zoster Virus......Page 1465 Zika Virus......Page 1466 Imaging......Page 1467 Parechovirus......Page 1468 Human Immunodeficiency Virus......Page 1469 Imaging......Page 1470 Disorders Mimicking Congenital Infections......Page 1472 Neonatal Meningitis......Page 1474 Meningitis in Infants, Children, and Adolescents......Page 1475 Pathophysiology of Meningitis......Page 1476 Imaging Manifestations of Meningitis......Page 1477 Effusions and empyemas......Page 1478 Hydrocephalus......Page 1482 Venous thrombosis/venous infarction......Page 1486 Tuberculous Meningitis......Page 1494 Imaging......Page 1497 Intracranial Complications of Sinusitis and Otomastoiditis......Page 1502 Bacterial Cerebritis......Page 1505 Brain Abscess......Page 1506 Imaging......Page 1508 Cat-Scratch Disease......Page 1514 Lyme Disease......Page 1515 Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever......Page 1516 General Concepts......Page 1517 Herpesviruses......Page 1521 Imaging......Page 1523 Imaging......Page 1527 Epstein-Barr Virus......Page 1528 Imaging......Page 1529 Nonpolio Enteroviruses......Page 1530 Arthropod-Borne Viruses......Page 1531 Imaging......Page 1532 Influenza Virus......Page 1533 Imaging......Page 1534 Imaging......Page 1536 Chronic Viral Infections......Page 1537 Imaging......Page 1538 Imaging......Page 1539 Rasmussen Encephalitis......Page 1540 Imaging......Page 1541 Neonatal Candidiasis......Page 1543 Imaging......Page 1545 Coccidioidomycosis......Page 1546 Parasitic Infections......Page 1547 Neurocysticercosis......Page 1548 Imaging......Page 1549 Cerebral Toxocaral Disease......Page 1551 Sarcoidosis......Page 1556 Discitis and Osteomyelitis......Page 1557 Imaging......Page 1558 Imaging......Page 1560 Imaging......Page 1565 Introduction......Page 1584 Preprocedural Planning......Page 1585 Vascular Access......Page 1586 Endovascular Occlusion......Page 1587 Intracerebral Hemorrhage in Children......Page 1588 Description and Causes......Page 1589 Clinical Manifestations......Page 1590 Imaging Findings......Page 1591 Treatment......Page 1593 Description and Causes......Page 1596 Clinical Presentation and Imaging Findings......Page 1598 Treatment......Page 1603 Definition and Causes......Page 1609 Developmental Venous Anomalies......Page 1610 Extradural Vascular Malformations and Neoplasms Requiring Endovascular Treatment......Page 1611 Hemangioma......Page 1612 Venous and Lymphatic Malformations......Page 1613 Facial AVM......Page 1615 Epistaxis and Juvenile Angiofibroma......Page 1616 Treatment......Page 1618 Neuroimaging Findings......Page 1619 Treatment......Page 1623 Presentation......Page 1626 Intracranial Aneurysms......Page 1627 Saccular Aneurysms......Page 1628 Presentation and Diagnosis......Page 1629 Treatment......Page 1630 Traumatic Aneurysms......Page 1633 Spinal Cord Arteriovenous Malformations......Page 1635 Intramedullary Arteriovenous Malformations......Page 1636 Epidural Fistulas......Page 1641 Cerebral Vasculopathy in Childhood......Page 1644 Definition and Clinical Features......Page 1648 Radiology......Page 1649 Definition and Clinical Features......Page 1650 Radiology......Page 1651 Definition and Clinical Characteristics......Page 1655 Radiology......Page 1656 A......Page 1669 B......Page 1671 C......Page 1675 D......Page 1682 E......Page 1684 F......Page 1687 G......Page 1688 H......Page 1689 I......Page 1693 L......Page 1696 M......Page 1697 N......Page 1702 O......Page 1704 P......Page 1705 Q......Page 1707