Diffusion Weighted MR Imaging of the Brain, Head and Neck, and Spine

Description

Preface to the 3rd edition Acknowledgements Contents Contributors Part I: Principles of DW Imaging 1: Basics of Diffusion Measurements by MRI 1.1 Diffusion: A Probabilistic Process 1.2 Diffusion Imaging in MR 1.3 Diffusion Imaging of the Brain 1.4 Principles of Magnetic Resonance Diffusion Imaging 1.5 Apparent Diffusion Coefficient 1.6 Diffusion Represents a Molecular Event 1.7 Requirements in Clinical Diffusion Imaging 1.8 Setting the b Value in Clinical DW Imaging 1.9 Future Trends in Clinical Diffusion Imaging References 2: Diffusion-Weighted and Tensor Imaging of the Normal Brain 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Adult Brain 2.2.1 Low Signal in Basal Ganglia 2.2.2 Diffusion-Weighted Imaging of Gray and White Matter 2.2.3 Choroid Plexus 2.3 Pediatric Brain 2.3.1 Diffusion-Weighted Imaging and ADC of the Pediatric Brain 2.4 Diffusion Tensor Imaging and White Matter Anatomy 2.4.1 Association Fibers 2.4.2 Projection Fibers 2.4.3 Commissural Fibers 2.4.4 Fibers of the Brain Stem and Cerebellum 2.4.5 Clinical Importance of White Matter Fiber Anatomy 2.5 Conclusion References 3: Pitfalls and Artifacts of Diffusion-Weighted Imaging 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Influence of ADC and T2 on the DW Appearance 3.2.1 Concepts 3.2.2 Apparent Diffusion Coefficient Maps 3.2.3 Exponential Images 3.3 Clinical Conditions 3.3.1 T2 Shine-Through 3.3.2 T2 Washout 3.3.3 T2 Blackout 3.4 Artifacts 3.4.1 Eddy Current Artifacts 3.4.2 Susceptibility Artifacts 3.4.3 N/2 Ghosting Artifact (Nyquist Ghost) 3.4.4 Chemical Shift 3.4.5 Motion Artifacts 3.5 Conclusion References 4: Diffusion Tensor and Kurtosis 4.1 Preface 4.1.1 Theoretical Considerations for Diffusion Tensor and Diffusion Kurtosis Imaging 4.1.1.1 Diffusion-Weighted Imaging 4.1.1.2 Diffusion Tensor Imaging Based on a Gaussian Distribution 4.1.1.3 Non-Gaussian Diffusion and Diffusion Kurtosis Imaging 4.1.2 Studies Using Diffusion Kurtosis Imaging for Central Nervous System Diseases 4.1.2.1 Cerebrovascular Diseases 4.1.2.2 Brain Tumors 4.1.2.3 Demyelinating Diseases 4.1.2.4 Neurodegenerative Diseases 4.1.2.5 Development and Developmental Abnormalities 4.1.3 Glymphatic System and Diffusion Imaging 4.2 Conclusion References 5: Intravoxel Incoherent Motion Imaging 5.1 Intravoxel Incoherent Motion Concept 5.2 IVIM Imaging 5.3 Methods of IVIM Analysis 5.4 Neuroimaging Applications of IVIM Imaging 5.4.1 Physiological Applications 5.4.2 IVIM Imaging of Brain Tumors 5.4.3 IVIM Imaging of Gliomas 5.4.4 Other Brain Tumors 5.4.5 Stroke and Brain Ischemia 5.4.6 Head and Neck Lesions 5.5 Pitfalls and Technical Limitations References 6: Functional MRI and Diffusion Tensor Imaging 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Functional MRI 6.3 HRF and BOLD Imaging 6.4 Regional Organization of Brain Systems 6.4.1 Primary Sensorimotor Cortex 6.4.2 Primary Language Areas 6.4.3 Primary Visual and Association Cortex 6.4.4 Supplementary Motor Areas 6.5 Paradigms and Design 6.6 Functional Mapping in Brain Tumor Surgery 6.7 Pearls and Pitfalls of Interpretation 6.8 Diffusion Tensor Imaging 6.9 White Matter Tracts 6.9.1 Projection Fibers 6.9.2 Association Fibers 6.9.3 Commissural Fibers 6.9.4 Fibers of Brainstem and Cerebellum 6.10 Diffusion Fiber Tracking 6.11 Presurgical Brain Mapping with DTI References 7: Physics of Advanced Diffusion Imaging 7.1 Pitfalls of the Diffusion Tensor Model 7.2 Diffusion Signal of Crossing Fibers 7.3 Modifications to the Single Exponential Decay Assumption 7.4 Biophysical Compartment Models 7.5 Q-Space Imaging Approaches 7.6 Summary of Advanced Diffusion Protocols 7.7 Future Development of Advanced Diffusion Studies References Part II: Clinical Applications of DW Imaging 8: Brain Edema 8.1 Characterization and Classification of Brain Edema 8.2 Cytotoxic or Cellular Edema 8.3 Pathophysiology of Cytotoxic Edema 8.3.1 Energy Failure 8.3.2 Excitotoxic Brain Injury 8.3.3 Cytokinopathy/Cytokine Storm and Excitotoxic Mechanisms (Fig. 8.14) 8.4 Diffusion-Weighted Imaging and Cytotoxic Edema 8.4.1 Conditions that Cause Cytotoxic Edema, and Reversibility 8.4.1.1 Cytotoxic Edema of Neurons and Glial Cells 8.4.1.2 Cytotoxic Edema and Cortical Spreading Depolarization/Depression 8.4.1.3 Axonal Swelling 8.4.1.4 Intramyelinic Edema 8.5 Vasogenic or Interstitial Edema 8.5.1 Conditions that Cause Vasogenic Edema 8.6 Diffusion Tensor Imaging and Edema 8.7 Conclusion 8.7.1 Cytotoxic or Cellular Edema 8.7.2 Vasogenic Edema 8.8 Brain Edema—Treatment 8.8.1 Introduction 8.8.2 Types of Cerebral Edema and Diagnosis 8.8.3 Mechanisms of Cerebral Edema by Pathology 8.8.3.1 Tumor-Associated Edema 8.8.3.2 Stroke-Associated Edema 8.8.3.3 Intracranial Hemorrhage-Associated Edema 8.8.3.4 Traumatic Brain Injury-Related Edema 8.8.4 Diagnosis and Clinical Monitoring of Cerebral Edema 8.8.5 Medical Management of Cerebral Edema 8.8.5.1 General Measures 8.8.5.2 Tumor-Related Edema 8.8.5.3 Stroke-Related Edema 8.8.5.4 Traumatic Brain Injury-Related Edema 8.8.6 Surgical Management of Cerebral Edema 8.8.6.1 Tumor-Related Edema 8.8.6.2 Stroke-Related Edema 8.8.6.3 Traumatic Brain Injury-Associated Edema 8.8.7 Future of Edema Management 8.8.8 Summary of Cerebral Edema Treatment References 9: Infarction 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Diffusion-Weighted Imaging (DWI) 9.2 Diffusion-Weighted Imaging and Pathophysiology of Cerebral Infarction 9.3 Apparent Diffusion Coefficient (ADC) 9.3.1 Explanation for Restricted Diffusion 9.4 Time Course of Infarction 9.4.1 Hyperacute (