Military Pyrotechnics: Principles and Practices

Description

This book covers military pyrotechnics characteristics, sensitivity, combustion, performance parameters, ingredients and their behaviour, various pyrotechnic compositions and their manufacturing methods, filling, pressing and assembly of ammunition and so forth. Divided into two broader sections, namely military pyrotechnic compositions and military pyrotechnic ammunitions and devices, it provides full spectrum of military pyrotechnics and a guide for all personnel involved with management of military pyrotechnic ammunitions and devices in design, production, inspection, training, and use. Features: *Answers "know what", "know why "and "know how" of pyrotechnic compositions and pyrotechnic ammunitions and devices * Explains various concepts and mechanisms of the military pyrotechnics *Deliberates on role and characteristics of pyrotechnic compositions and its classification *Discusses various factors affecting performance and some differences in military pyrotechnics * Describes various methods of initiation of ignition in ammunition *Elucidates basic requirements of pyrotechnic ammunitions, its development and life cycle of ammunition lots * Provides classification, division, shelf life, compatibility and nomenclature of ammunitions and devices *Reviews test/proof requirements of ammunitions and devices, deployment and functioning, defect classification, sampling plan and acceptance criteria *Explores latest trends in 'green pyrotechnics' for environment- friendly military pyrotechnics Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Contents Preface Acknowledgements About the author Section I: Military Pyrotechnic Compositions 1. Introduction 1.1 General 1.2 Pyrotechnic Combustion Vis a Vis Chemical Reaction in Liquid Phase 1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Pyrotechnic Compositions 1.4 Pyrotechnic Composition Special Effects 1.4.1 Special Effects - Radiation 1.4.2 Special Effects - Smoke 1.4.3 Special Effects - Heat 1.4.4 Special Effects - Sound and Flash 1.4.5 Special Effects - Gas 1.5 Main Characteristics of Pyrotechnic Compositions 1.6 General Essential Requirements of Military Pyrotechnic Compositions 1.7 Important Parameters of Military Pyrotechnic Compositions 1.8 Pyrotechnic Ammunitions and Devices with their Applications References 2. Pyrotechnic Composition Sensitivity 2.1 General 2.2 Factors Affecting Sensitivity of Pyrotechnic Compositions 2.2.1 Energy of Activation 2.2.2 Melting and Decomposition Temperature of Oxidiser 2.2.3 Melting Point, Boiling Point and Thermal Conductivity of Fuels 2.2.4 Heat of Combustion of Fuels and Heat of Decomposition of Oxidisers 2.2.5 Stoichiometric Ratio of Fuel and Oxidiser in Compositions 2.2.6 Degree of Fineness of Ingredients 2.2.7 Hardness and Shape of Ingredients 2.2.8 Density of the Compositions 2.2.9 Ambient Temperature 2.2.10 Atmospheric Pressure 2.2.11 Binding/Coating Materials 2.2.12 Inert Materials 2.2.13 Moisture/Solvent 2.2.14 Homogeneity of Composition 2.2.15 Specific Heat of Composition 2.3 Sensitivity and Heat of Combustion 2.4 Measurement of Sensitivity of Pyrotechnic Compositions 2.4.1 Impact Sensitivity 2.4.2 Percussion Sensitivity 2.4.3 Friction Sensitivity 2.4.4 Thermal Sensitivity 2.4.5 Electrostatic Charge (Spark) Sensitivity 2.5 Safety Indices of Pyrotechnic Compositions 2.6 Safety Certificate of Pyrotechnic Compositions References 3. Combustion of Pyrotechnic Compositions 3.1 General 3.2 Process of Ignition 3.2.1 Factors Affecting Quantum of Heat Transfer 3.2.2 Burning and Burn Rates 3.3 Probability of Ignition 3.4 Energy of Activation 3.5 Ignition Temperature 3.5.1 Factors Affecting Ignition Temperature and Energy of Activation 3.5.1.1 The Higher the Specific Surface (Small Particles), the Lower shall be the Ignition Temperature 3.5.1.2 Decomposition Temperature of Oxidiser and Melting Point of Fuel 3.5.1.3 Some Additives Reduce Ignition Temperature 3.5.1.4 Factors Affecting Ignition Temperature During Determination of Ignition Temperature 3.6 Factors Affecting Time to Ignition (or Time Lag) 3.7 Heat of Combustion 3.7.1 Factors Affecting Heat of Combustion in Pyrotechnic Compositions 3.8 Propagation of Combustion 3.9 Flame Temperature 3.10 Temperature Dependence of Rate of Combustion 3.11 Thermal Run-Away Temperature 3.11.1 Heat Loss 3.11.2 Heat Gain 3.12 Essential Requirement for Pyrotechnic Combustion 3.13 Ignition Transfer 3.13.1 Conduction 3.13.2 Convection 3.13.3 Radiation 3.14 Energy Propagation Diagram 3.14.1 Energy provided for ignition by external ignition stimuli Es is less than the energy of activation Ea1 of the composition 1 () 3.14.2 Energy provided for ignition by external ignition stimuli Es is more than the energy of activation Ea1 of composition 1 but energy feedback for sustaining burning Efb1 of composition 1 is less than its own energy of activation Ea1 () 3.14.3 Energy provided for ignition by external ignition stimuli Es is more than the energy of activation Ea1of composition 1 but energy feedback for sustaining burning Efb1of composition 1 is only slightly more than its own energy of activation Ea1 () 3.14.4 Energy provided for ignition by external ignition stimuli Es is more than the energy of activation Ea1of composition 1 and the energy feedback for sustaining burning Efb1from composition 1 is substantially more than its own energy of activation Ea1 () 3.14.5 Energy provided for ignition by external ignition stimuli Es is less than the energy of activation Ea1 of composition 1 and hence a priming composition is pressed over composition 1 () 3.14.6 Ignition of Pressed composition consisting of three Compositions () 3.15 Propagation Index 3.16 Thermal Analysis for Understanding Combustion Process References 4. Factors Affecting Pyrotechnic Performance 4.1 General 4.2 Characteristics of Composition 4.2.1 Chemical Nature of Composition 4.2.2 Heat of Combustion of Fuels 4.2.3 Exothermic/Endothermic Decomposition of Oxidisers 4.2.4 Thermal Conductivity 4.2.5 Electromagnetic Radiation from Combustion Products 4.2.6 Specific Heat 4.2.7 Density 4.2.8 Percentage of Ingredients and Oxygen Balance Oxygen Balance 4.2.9 Purity of Ingredients 4.2.10 Particle Size, Shape, Porosity and Surface Area 4.2.11 Quality and Quantity of Binders 4.2.12 Quality and Quantity of Burn Rate Modifiers 4.2.13 Uniformity of Mixing/Blending 4.2.14 Loading Pressure (Degree of Compaction) 4.2.15 Moisture and or Volatile Matter 4.2.16 Exposed Surface 4.2.17 Products of Combustion 4.3 Design Features of Ammunition 4.3.1 Method of Initiation 4.3.2 Container Material 4.3.3 Column Dimension 4.3.4 Venting /Confinement 4.3.5 Spin 4.4 Type of Environment 4.4.1 Atmospheric Pressure 4.4.2 Ambient Temperature 4.4.3 Wind Direction, Wind Velocity and Nature's Background Light 4.4.4 Humidity, Moisture, Dust, Smoke, Heavy Fog, Snow, and Rain 4.5 Effect of Various Parameters on Rate of Combustion References 5. Determination of Performance Parameters 5.1 General 5.1.1 Sensitivity to External Stimuli 5.1.2 Moisture Absorption 5.1.3 Apparent Bulk Density and Loading Density 5.1.4 Ignition Temperature 5.1.5 Heat of Combustion and Heat of Reaction 5.1.6 Flame Temperature 5.1.7 Luminosity and Burn Time 5.1.8 Infrared Intensity and Emission Time 5.1.9 Flame Length of Composition 5.1.10 Ignition Delay 5.1.11 Burn Rate 5.1.12 Ignition Energy 5.1.13 Compaction Strength of Pressed Composition 5.1.14 Infrared Attenuation by Smoke 5.1.15 Obscuration Power of Screening Smoke 5.1.16 Sound Intensity 5.1.17 Electrical Conductivity 5.1.18 Thermal Conductivity 5.1.19 Volume of Gaseous Combustion Products 5.1.20 Efficiency of Composition 5.1.21 Colour Quality References 6. Ingredients of Pyrotechnic Compositions 6.1 General 6.2 Fuels 6.2.1 Role of Fuels 6.2.2 Parameters for Choice of Fuels 6.2.2.1 Heat of Combustion 6.2.2.2 Grinding and Sieving 6.2.2.3 Ease of Oxidisability 6.2.2.4 Combustion Products 6.2.2.5 Thermal Conductivity of Fuel 6.2.2.6 Melting Point of Fuel 6.2.2.7 Stability 6.2.2.8 Hygroscopicity 6.2.2.9 Purity of Fuels 6.2.2.10 Toxicity 6.2.2.11 Sensitivity 6.2.2.11 Availability and Cost 6.2.3 Classification of Fuels Used in Pyrotechnic Compositions 6.3 Oxidisers 6.3.1 Role of Oxidisers 6.3.2 Parameters for Choice of Oxidiser 6.3.2.1 Heat of Decomposition of Oxidiser 6.3.2.2 Grinding and Sieving 6.3.2.3 Active Oxygen Content 6.3.2.4 Melting Point of Oxidiser 6.3.2.5 Purity of Oxidiser 6.3.2.6 Stability 6.3.2.7 Hygroscopicity 6.3.2.8 Availability and Cost 6.3.2.9 Toxicity 6.3.2.10 Flame Colour 6.3.2.11 Sensitivity 6.3.3 Classification of Oxidisers Used in Pyrotechnic Compositions 6.3.4 Some Typical Decomposition of Oxidisers 6.4 Role of Binders 6.4.1 Classification of Binders Used in Pyrotechnic Compositions 6.4.2 Parameters for Choice of Binders 6.4.3 Solvents for Binders 6.5 Burn Rate Modifiers 6.5.1 Role of Burn Rate Modifiers 6.5.2 Parameters for Choice of Burn Rate Modifier 6.6 Colour Intensifier 6.6.1 Role of Colour Intensifiers 6.6.2 Types of Colour Intensifiers (as Chlorine Donor) 6.7 Dyes 6.7.1 Role of Dyes 6.7.2 Parameters for Choice of Dyes 6.8 Special Additives 6.8.1 Role of Special Additives 6.9 Material Safety Data Sheet 6.10 Factors Governing the Choice of Ingredients for Composition References 7. Manufacture of Pyrotechnic Compositions 7.1 General 7.2 Nomenclature of Pyrotechnic Compositions 7.3 Sieves 7.3.1 Standard Sieves 7.3.2 Working of Sieves 7.4 Manufacture of Pyrotechnic Compositions 7.5 Transportation and Storage of Ingredients 7.5.1 Testing of Ingredients 7.5.2 Preparation of Ingredients 7.5.3 Weighing of Ingredients 7.5.4 Mixing 7.5.4.1 Dry Mixing 7.5.4.2 Wet Mixing 7.5 TYPES OF MIXING OF COMPOSITION 7.6 Granulation of Compositions 7.7 Drying and Maturation of Compositions 7.7.1 Factors Affecting Drying of Composition 7.8 Blending of Compositions 7.8.1 Factors Affecting Blending 7.9 Storage and Transport of Compositions 7.10 Testing/Evaluation of Compositions 7.11 Checklist for Pyrotechnic Composition Mixing 7.12 Drawbacks in Literature on Pyrotechnic Compositions Reference 8. Illuminating Compositions 8.1 Role 8.2 Characteristics of Illuminating Compositions 8.2.1 Luminosity 8.2.2 Burn Rate 8.2.3 Factors Affecting Burn Time and Illumination 8.3 Preference of Magnesium as Fuel 8.4 Illuminating Compositions with Parachute 8.5 Relationship Between Ground Illumination and Candle Altitude 8.6 Performance of Illuminating Composition in Air, Argon and Nitrogen 8.7 Typical Illuminating Compositions 8.8 Special Requirements of Illuminating Compositions References 9. Signalling Flare Compositions 9.1 Role 9.2 Mechanism of Production of Flame Colour 9.3 Colour Purity 9.4 Factors Affecting Perception of Flame Colour 9.5 Red Signalling Flare Compositions 9.6 Green Signalling Flare Compositions 9.7 Yellow Signalling Flare Compositions 9.8 White Signalling Flare Compositions 9.9 Elastic Signal Flare Compositions 9.11 Non-Toxic Signalling Flare Compositions 9.12 Special Requirements of Signalling Flare Compositions References 10. Tracer Compositions 10.1 Role 10.2 Types of Tracers 10.3 Tracer Design 10.4 Tracer Luminous Intensity 10.5 Factors Affecting Tracer Performance 10.6 Use of Tracers 10.7 Typical Tracer Compositions 10.8 Infrared Tracers 10.9 Special Requirements of Tracer Compositions References 11. Photoflash Compositions 11.1 Role 11.2 Constituents of Photoflash Compositions 11.3 Mechanism of Photoflash Compositions 11.4 Differences Between Photoflash and Illuminating Compositions 11.5 Factors Affecting Performance of Photoflash Compositions 11.6 Flash Requirement for Photography 11.7 Typical Photoflash Compositions 11.8 Desensitisation of Photoflash Compositions 11.9 Special Requirements of Photoflash Compositions References 12. Screening Smoke Compositions 12.1 Role 12.2 Screening Smoke Are Aerosol 12.2.1 Mechanism of Attenuation 12.2.2 Beer-Lambert Law 12.2.3 Transmittance Factor 12.2.4 Absorbance 12.2.5 Obscuration Percent 12.2.6 Yield 12.2.7 Figure of Merit 12.3 Factors Affecting Screening Effect 12.4 Production of Screening Smoke 12.4.1 Oil 12.4.2 Carbon Tetrachloride 12.4.3 White and Red Phosphorous 12.4.4 Hexachloroethane 12.4.5 Anthracene 12.4.6 Training Smoke Compositions 12.4.7 Non-Toxic Smoke Compositions 12.5 Special Requirements of Screening Smoke Compositions 12.6 Infrared Attenuation by Smoke 12.6.1 Reducing Targets (like Tank's, Gun's) Infrared Emission Intensity 12.6.2 Infrared Attenuating Smoke 12.6.2.1 Infrared Transmittance 12.7 Castable Screening Smoke Composition References 13. Signalling Colour Smoke Compositions 13.1 Role 13.2 Methods for Production of Signalling Colour Smoke 13.2.1 Mechanism of Bursting Type Coloured Smoke Compositions 13.2.2 Mechanism of Volatilisation and Condensation Type Compositions 13.3 Typical Signalling Colour Smoke Compositions 13.4 Factors Affecting Perception of Signalling Colour Smoke 13.5 Differences Between Screening Smoke and Colour Smoke 13.6 Special Requirements Signalling Colour Smoke Compositions References 14. Riot Control Compositions 14.1 Role 14.2 Typical Riot Control Agents (RCA) 14.3 Toxicity of Riot Control Agents [] 14.4 Immediate Signs and Symptoms of Exposure to Riot Control Compositions on Human Body 14.6 Mechanism of Riot Control Agents 14.7 Typical Riot Control Compositions in Grenades 14.8 Special Requirements of Riot Control Compositions References 15. Incendiary Compositions 15.1 Role 15.2 Types of Incendiary Compositions 15.2.1 Solid Incendiary Compositions 15.2.2 Gel Incendiary Compositions 15.3 Mechanism of Incendiary Composition Combustion 15.4 Typical Solid Incendiary Compositions 15.5 Non-Toxic Incendiary Compositions [] 15.6 Factors Affecting Efficiency of Incendiary Compositions 15.7 Typical Gel Incendiary Compositions 15.8 Special Requirements of Solid Incendiary Thermite Compositions: 15.9 Differences Between Solid Incendiary and Gel Incendiary Compositions References 16. Simulating Compositions 16.1 Role 16.2 Typical Simulating Flash and Sound Compositions 16.3 Mechanism of Whistling Sound Production from Simulating Compositions 16.4 Mechanism of Decay of the Frequency of Whistling Sound 16.5 Special Requirements of Simulating Compositions References 17. Delay Compositions 17.1 Role 17.2 Delay Burning Rates 17.3 Delay Burning Train Mechanism 17.4 Factors Affecting Delay Time 17.5 Advantages/Disadvantages of Pyrotechnic Delay Compositions 17.6 Delay-Filled Components 17.7 Classification of Delays 17.7.1 Short-Range, Medium-Range and Long-Range Delays [] 17.7.2 Gasless (Low Gas) and Gassy Delays (Slag Less) 17.7.2.1 Gasless (Low Gas) Delay 17.7.2.2 Gassy Delays 17.7.3 Position and Functioning in Ammunition 17.7.4 Vented or Obturated Delays 17.7.5 Shape of Delays Like Ring-Shaped, Cylindrical or Lead Fuse Type 17.7.6 Castable Delays [] 17.7.7 Environmentally Benign Pyrotechnic Delay Compositions 17.7.8 Burn Rates of Some Delay Compositions 17.8 Special Requirements of Delay Compositions References 18. Infrared Flare Compositions 18.1 Role 18.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum 18.3 Infrared Radiation from Target 18.4 Manufacture of Infrared Flare Compositions for Decoys 18.5 Infrared Decoy Flare Design [] 18.6 Spectrally Matched Infrared Payloads 18.7 Pyrophoric Flares [] 18.8 Factors Affecting Infrared Flare Output 18.9 Special Requirements of Infrared Decoy Flare Compositions 18.10 Illuminating Infrared Flare Compositions 18.11 Special Requirements of Infrared Illuminating Flare Compositions 18.12 Tracking Flare Compositions References 19. Priming and Booster Compositions 19.1 Role 19.2 Mechanism of Ignition by Priming and Booster Compositions 19.3 Types of Priming Compositions 19.3.1 Composition based on Gun Powder 19.3.2 Compositions producing Hot Slags 19.3.3 Containing Organic Fuels with Oxidisers like Potassium Nitrate or IDITOL 19.3.4 Elastic Priming Compositions 19.3.5 Special Requirements of Priming Compositions 19.4 Booster Compositions References 20. Flame and Smoke Compositions 20.1 Role 20.2 Flame and Smoke Compositions References 21. Gunpowder Compositions 21.1 Role 21.2 Gunpowder Composition 21.3 Gunpowder Manufacture 21.4 Grades of Gunpowder 21.5 Properties of Gunpowder 21.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Gunpowder 21.7 Gunpowder Combustion Products, Loading Density and Humidity Effect 21.8 Sulphur-Free Gunpowder 21.9 Matches 21.10 Fuses References 22. Initiation of Ignition in Ammunition 22.1 General 22.2 External Energy for Initiation of Ignition 22.3 Initiatory Compositions 22.3.1 Factors Affecting Efficiency of Initiatory Compositions 22.3.2 Stab Caps 22.3.3 Percussion Cap 22.3.4 Differences between Stab and Percussion Characteristics 22.3.5 Special Requirements of Stab, Percussion and Rim Fire Cap Compositions 22.4 Friction Energy on Friction Compositions 22.4.1 Pull Wire/Cord Igniter 22.4.2 Striker Card 22.4.3 Friction Match 22.4.5 Special Requirements of Friction Compositions 22.5 Electrical Energy on Electrical Sensitive Compositions 22.5.1 Electrical Cap Conducting 22.5.2 Electrical Squib 22.5.2.2 Use of Squibs 22.5.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Squibs/Impulse Cartridges 22.5.4 Special Requirements of Electrical Squib Compositions 22.6 Primers, Igniters and Power Cartridges 22.6.1 Igniter for Ignition of Propellants in Cartridge Cases or Bagged Charges 22.6.2 Igniter for Ignition of Base Bleed Propellants in Projectile 22.6.3 Igniter for Ignition of Propellants in Missiles 22.6.4 Power Cartridges for Initiation of Mechanical Works 22.6.4.1 Special Requirements of Igniter for Rocket Motor/Aerospace Vehicles 22.6.5 Igniter for Ignition of Solid and inflammable Gel Pyrotechnic Compositions 22.7 Laser Ignition 22.7.1 Mechanism of Laser Ignition [23] 22.7.2 Factors Affecting Laser Ignition 22.7.3 Advantages of Laser Ignition Over Conventional Bridge Wire Initiation [26] 22.7.4 Laser Match Head [27] 22.8 Fuzes References Section 2: Pyrotechnic Ammunitions and Devices 23. Pyrotechnic Ammunition Manufacture 23.1 General 23.2 Basic Requirements in Pyrotechnic Ammunition Manufacture 23.3 Pyrotechnic Ammunition Design and Development 23.4 Features of a Pyrotechnic Ammunition and Device 23.5 Environmental Tests 23.6 Mechanical Handling Tests 23.7 Life Cycle of Ammunition Lots 23.8 Documents, Specifications and Drawings References 24. Filling, Pressing and Assembly 24.1 General 24.2 Filling of Pyrotechnic Compositions 24.3 Tablet Making Machines 24.4 Pressing of Composition in Mould 24.5 Mechanism of Pressing in Moulds 24.6 Other Methods of Filling and Pressing 24.7 Compaction/Crushing Strength of Pellets 24.8 Factors Affecting Compaction Strength of the Pellet 24.9 Porosity and Compaction Coefficient 24.10 Density Variation in Pellet 24.11 Cracks in Pellet 24.12 Assembly of Filled Ammunitions References 25. Sealing of Pyrotechnic Ammunitions 25.1 General 25.2 Types of Sealants 25.3 Sealant Salient Properties Reference 26. Painting, Marking, Packing and Storage 26.1 General 26.2 Role of Stamping or Marking of Components 26.3 Role of Painting and Marking of Ammunitions 26.4 Role of Packages 26.5 Types of Package 26.6 Role of Package Painting and Marking 26.7 Defects in Painting, Marking and Packing of Ammunition and Package 26.8 Storage of Ammunition Packages References 27. Classification, Shelf Life and Compatibility 27.1 General 27.2 CLASSIFICATION 27.3 Shelf Life of Ammunition 27.3.1 Factors Affecting Shelf Life of Ammunition 27.4 Compatibility 27.5 Moisture/Humidity and Degree of Exposure, Temperature Variation and Ageing 27.6 Volatile ingredients 27.7 Compatibility Tests 27.8 Remedial Measures to Avoid Deterioration of Pyrotechnic Ammunitions References 28. Classification and Nomenclature 28.1 General 28.2 Overall General Classification 28.2.1 As per Shape 28.2.2 As per Service Use 28.2.3 As Per Tactical Use/Type of Functioning 28.3 Distinct Ammunition Nomenclature 28.4 Mixed Nomenclature 28.5 Variation in Classification 29. Proof of Pyrotechnic Ammunitions 29.1 General 29.2 Test/Proof of Composition and Components 29.3 Deployment and Functioning of Ammunitions 29.4 Parameters for Bulk-Filled Lot Proof 29.5 Types of Filled Lot Proof 29.6 Defect Classification 29.6.1 Critical Defects 29.6.2 Major Defects 29.6.3 Minor Defects 29.7 Lot Size and Sampling Plan 29.8 Some Major Defects in Proof of Ammunitions References 30. Illuminating Ammunitions 30.1 General 30.2 Grenade Illuminating Ammunitions [2] 30.3 Mortar Illuminating Bomb 30.4 Shell Illuminating Ammunitions 30.5 Cartridge and Aircraft Illuminating Ammunitions References 31. Photoflash Ammunitions 31.1 General 31.2 Photoflash Bombs 31.3 Photoflash Cartridges References 32. Screening Smoke Ammunitions 32.1 General 32.2 Grenade Smoke 32.3 Mortar Smoke Bombs 32.4 Aircraft Smoke Bombs [4] 32.5 Artillery Smoke Shells and Cartridges 32.6 Generator Smoke or Container /Pot Smoke Ammunitions 32.7 Infrared Screening Smoke Ammunitions References 33. Signalling Ammunitions 33.1 General 33.2 Grenade Signalling 33.3 Mortar Signalling Bomb 33.4 Artillery Signalling Shells 33.5 Miscellaneous Signalling Ammunitions 33.5.1 Ammunition Fired in Air 33.5.2 Ammunition Fired Under Sea 33.5.3 Ammunition Fired through Aircraft 33.5.4 Ammunition Fired on Ground References 34. Incendiary Ammunitions 34.1 General 34.2 Small Arms Incendiary Ammunitions 34.3 Medium Calibre Incendiary Ammunitions 34.4 Mortar Incendiary Bombs 34.5 Artillery Incendiary Shells 34.6 Grenade Incendiary Ammunitions 34.7 Gel Incendiary AMMUNITIONS References 35. Riot Control Devices/Ammunitions 35.1 General 35.2 Grenades 35.3 Carridges and Shells 35.5 Heavy Calibre Ammunitions 35.6 Other Devices References 36. Training /Practice Ammunitions 36.1 General 36.2 Types of Training/Practice Ammunitions 36.2.1 Grenades 36.2.2 Cartridges 36.2.3 Infrared Flare 36.2.4 Smoke Pots 36.2.5 Bombs 36.3 Dummy and Cut Dummy Model References 37. Distress Signalling Devices 37.1 General 37.2 Differences between Distress Signalling Devices and Signalling Ammunition 37.3 Types of Distress Signalling Devices 37.4 Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Regulations References 38. Simulating Ammunitions 38.1 General 38.2 Types of Simulating Ammunitions References 39. Infrared Flare Ammunitions and Devices 39.1 General 39.2 Types of Infrared Flare Ammunitions 39.2.1 Mortar Infrared Bombs with Parachute 39.2.2 Artillery Infrared Illuminating Shells with Parachute 39.2.3 Hand-Held Infrared Flares with Parachute 39.2.4 Infrared Flare Decoys for Defensive Purpose 39.2.4.1 Mechanism of Infrared Flare Decoys for Defensive Purpose 39.2.4.2 Important Features of Deployment of Infrared Decoys 39.2.4.3 Infrared Decoy Flares Assembly 39.2.4.4 Infrared Flare Dispensing Towed Decoy [6] 39.3 Differences between Infrared Decoys and Chaff Decoys References Index