Life: The Science of Biology

Description

Cover Page ......Page 1 Title Page ......Page 4 Copyright Page ......Page 5 Dedication ......Page 6 The Authors ......Page 7 Contents in Brief ......Page 8 Investigating Life/Tools for Investigating Life ......Page 9 Preface ......Page 11 Reviewers for the Ninth Edition ......Page 15 LIFE's Media and Supplements ......Page 18 Contents ......Page 22 1 Studying Life......Page 47 1.1 What Is Biology?......Page 48 1.2 How Is All Life on Earth Related?......Page 54 1.3 How Do Biologists Investigate Life?......Page 58 1.4 How Does Biology Influence Public Policy?......Page 62 2 Small Molecules and the Chemistry of Life ......Page 65 2.1 How Does Atomic Structure Explain the Properties of Matter?......Page 66 2.2 How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules?......Page 70 2.3 How Do Atoms Change Partners in Chemical Reactions?......Page 75 2.4 What Makes Water So Important for Life?......Page 76 An Overview and a Preview......Page 80 3 Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Lipids ......Page 83 3.1 What Kinds of Molecules Characterize Living Things?......Page 84 3.2 What Are the Chemical Structures and Functions of Proteins?......Page 87 3.3 What Are the Chemical Structures and Functions of Carbohydrates?......Page 94 3.4 What Are the Chemical Structures and Functions of Lipids?......Page 99 4 Nucleic Acids and the Origin of Life ......Page 105 4.1 What Are the Chemical Structures and Functions of Nucleic Acids?......Page 106 4.2 How and Where Did the Small Molecules of Life Originate?......Page 110 4.3 How Did the Large Molecules of Life Originate?......Page 114 4.4 How Did the First Cells Originate?......Page 117 5 Cells: The Working Units of Life ......Page 121 5.1 What Features Make Cells the Fundamental Units of Life?......Page 122 5.2 What Features Characterize Prokaryotic Cells?......Page 127 5.3 What Features Characterize Eukaryotic Cells?......Page 129 5.4 What Are the Roles of Extracellular Structures?......Page 145 5.5 How Did Eukaryotic Cells Originate?......Page 146 6 Cell Membranes ......Page 150 6.1 What Is the Structure of a Biological Membrane?......Page 151 6.2 How Is the Plasma Membrane Involved in Cell Adhesion and Recognition?......Page 156 6.3 What Are the Passive Processes of MembraneTransport?......Page 159 6.4 What are the Active Processes of Membrane Transport?......Page 165 6.5 How Do Large Molecules Enter and Leave a Cell?......Page 167 6.6 What Are Some Other Functions of Membranes?......Page 169 7 Cell Signaling and Communication ......Page 173 7.1 What Are Signals, and How Do Cells Respond to Them?......Page 174 7.2 How Do Signal Receptors Initiate a Cellular Response?......Page 177 7.3 How Is the Response to a Signal Transduced through the Cell?......Page 181 7.4 How Do Cells Change in Response to Signals?......Page 187 7.5 How Do Cells Communicate Directly?......Page 189 8 Energy, Enzymes, and Metabolism......Page 193 8.1 What Physical Principles Underlie Biological Energy Transformations?......Page 194 8.2 What Is the Role of ATP in Biochemical Energetics?......Page 198 8.3 What Are Enzymes?......Page 201 8.4 How Do Enzymes Work?......Page 203 8.5 How Are Enzyme Activities Regulated?......Page 206 9 Pathways that Harvest Chemical Energy ......Page 213 9.1 How Does Glucose Oxidation Release Chemical Energy?......Page 214 9.2 What Are the Aerobic Pathways of Glucose Metabolism?......Page 217 9.3 How Does Oxidative Phosphorylation Form ATP?......Page 222 9.4 How Is Energy Harvested from Glucose in the Absence of Oxygen?......Page 226 9.5 How Are Metabolic Pathways Interrelated and Regulated?......Page 229 10 Photosynthesis: Energy from Sunlight ......Page 234 10.1 What Is Photosynthesis?......Page 235 10.2 How Does Photosynthesis Convert Light Energy into Chemical Energy?......Page 237 10.3 How Is Chemical Energy Used to Synthesize Carbohydrates?......Page 244 10.4 How Do Plants Adapt to the Inefficiencies of Photosynthesis?......Page 247 10.5 How Does Photosynthesis Interact with Other Pathways?......Page 250 11 The Cell Cycle and Cell Division......Page 254 11.1 How Do Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Divide?......Page 255 11.2 How Is Eukaryotic Cell Division Controlled?......Page 257 11.3 What Happens during Mitosis?......Page 260 11.4 What Role Does Cell Division Play in a Sexual Life Cycle?......Page 266 11.5 What Happens during Meiosis?......Page 269 11.6 In a Living Organism, How Do Cells Die?......Page 274 11.7 How Does Unregulated Cell Division Lead to Cancer?......Page 275 12 Inheritance, Genes, and Chromosomes ......Page 281 12.1 What Are the Mendelian Laws of Inheritance?......Page 282 12.2 How Do Alleles Interact?......Page 293 12.3 How Do Genes Interact?......Page 295 12.4 What Is the Relationship between Genes and Chromosomes?......Page 298 12.5 What Are the Effects of Genes Outside the Nucleus?......Page 304 12.6 How Do Prokaryotes Transmit Genes?......Page 305 13 DNA and Its Role in Heredity ......Page 311 13.1 What Is the Evidence that the Gene is DNA?......Page 312 13.2 What Is the Structure of DNA?......Page 317 13.3 How Is DNA Replicated?......Page 321 13.4 How Are Errors in DNA Repaired?......Page 330 13.5 How Does the Polymerase Chain Reaction Amplify DNA?......Page 331 14 From DNA to Protein: Gene Expression ......Page 335 14.1 What Is the Evidence that Genes Code for Proteins?......Page 336 14.2 How Does Information Flow from Genes to Proteins?......Page 339 14.3 How Is the Information Content in DNA Transcribed to Produce RNA?......Page 341 14.4 How Is Eukaryotic DNATranscribed and the RNA Processed?......Page 345 14.5 How Is RNA Translated into Proteins?......Page 349 14.6 What Happens to Polypeptides after Translation?......Page 355 15 Gene Mutation and Molecular Medicine ......Page 361 15.1 What Are Mutations?......Page 362 15.2 How Are DNA Molecules and Mutations Analyzed?......Page 368 15.3 How Do Defective Proteins Lead to Diseases?......Page 372 15.4 What DNA Changes Lead to Genetic Diseases?......Page 375 15.5 How Is Genetic Screening Used to Detect Diseases?......Page 379 15.6 How Are Genetic DiseasesTreated?......Page 382 16 Regulation of Gene Expression ......Page 387 16.1 How Do Viruses Regulate Their Gene Expression?......Page 388 16.2 How Is Gene Expression Regulated in Prokaryotes?......Page 393 16.3 How Is Eukaryotic Gene Transcription Regulated?......Page 397 16.4 How Do Epigenetic Changes Regulate Gene Expression?......Page 401 16.5 How Is Eukaryotic Gene Expression Regulated After Transcription?......Page 405 17 Genomes ......Page 410 17.1 How Are Genomes Sequenced? ......Page 411 17.2 What Have We Learned from Sequencing Prokaryotic Genomes? ......Page 416 17.3 What Have We Learned from Sequencing Eukaryotic Genomes? ......Page 420 17.4 What Are the Characteristics of the Human Genome? ......Page 425 17.5 What Do the New Disciplines Proteomics and Metabolomics Reveal? ......Page 427 18 Recombinent DNA and Biotechnology ......Page 431 18.1 What Is Recombinant DNA? ......Page 432 18.2 How Are New Genes Inserted into Cells? ......Page 434 18.3 What Sources of DNA Are Used in Cloning? ......Page 437 18.4 What Other Tools Are Used to Study DNA Function? ......Page 438 18.5 What Is Biotechnology? ......Page 442 18.6 How Is Biotechnology Changing Medicine, Agriculture, and the Environment? ......Page 443 19 Differential Gene Expression in Development ......Page 450 19.1 What Are the Processes of Development? ......Page 451 19.2 Is Cell Differentiation Irreversible? ......Page 453 19.3 What Is the Role of Gene Expression in Cell Differentiation? ......Page 457 19.4 How Is Cell Fate Determined? ......Page 458 19.5 How Does Gene Expression Determine Pattern Formation? ......Page 462 20 Development and Evolutionary Change ......Page 471 20.1 What Is Evo-Devo? ......Page 472 20.2 How Can Mutations With Large Effects Change Only One Part of the Body? ......Page 474 20.3 How Can Differences among Species Evolve? ......Page 477 20.4 How Does the Environment Modulate Development? ......Page 478 20.5 How Do Developmental Genes Constrain Evolution? ......Page 481 21 Evidence and Mechanisms of Evolution ......Page 485 21.1 What Facts Form the Basis of Our Understanding of Evolution? ......Page 486 21.2 What Are the Mechanisms of Evolutionary Change? ......Page 493 21.3 How Does Natural Selection Result in Evolution? ......Page 496 21.4 How Is Genetic Variation Maintained within Populations? ......Page 501 21.5 What Are the Constraints on Evolution? ......Page 504 22 Reconstructing and Using Phylogenies ......Page 509 22.1 What Is Phylogeny? ......Page 510 22.2 How Are Phylogenetic Trees Constructed? ......Page 513 22.3 How Do Biologists Use Phylogenetic Trees? ......Page 518 22.4 How Does Phylogeny Relate to Classification? ......Page 521 23 Species and Their Formation ......Page 526 23.1 What Are Species?......Page 527 23.2 How Do New Species Arise? ......Page 529 23.3 What Happens When Newly Formed Species Come Together? ......Page 534 23.4 Why Do Rates of Speciation Vary? ......Page 538 24 Evolution of Genes and Genomes ......Page 543 24.1 How Are Genomes Used to Study Evolution? ......Page 544 24.2 What Do Genomes Reveal About Evolutionary Processes? ......Page 550 24.3 How Do Genomes Gain and Maintain Functions? ......Page 554 24.4 What Are Some Applications of Molecular Evolution? ......Page 557 25 The History of Life on Earth ......Page 563 25.1 How Do Scientists Date Ancient Events? ......Page 564 25.2 How Have Earth's Continents and Climates Changed over Time? ......Page 566 25.3 What Are the Major Events in Life’s History? ......Page 571 26 Bacteria and Archaea: The Prokaryotic Domains ......Page 581 26.1 How Did the Living World Begin to Diversify? ......Page 582 26.2 What Are Some Keys to the Success of Prokaryotes? ......Page 584 26.3 How Can We Resolve Prokaryote Phylogeny? ......Page 590 26.4 What Are the Major Known Groups of Prokaryotes? ......Page 592 26.5 How Do Prokaryotes Affect Their Environments? ......Page 598 26.6 Where Do Viruses Fit into the Tree of Life? ......Page 600 27 The Origin and Diversification of Eukaryotes ......Page 605 27.1 How Did the Eukaryotic Cell Arise? ......Page 606 27.2 What Features Account for Protist Diversity? ......Page 611 27.3 How Do Protists Affect the World Around Them? ......Page 614 27.4 How Do Protists Reproduce? ......Page 617 27.5 What Are the Evolutionary Relationships among Eukaryotes? ......Page 620 28 Plants without Seeds: From Water to Land ......Page 633 28.1 How Did the Land Plants Arise? ......Page 634 28.2 How Did Plants Colonize and Thrive on Land? ......Page 636 28.3 What Features Distinguish the Vascular Plants? ......Page 639 28.4 What Are the Major Clades of Seedless Plants? ......Page 644 29 The Evolution of Seed Plants ......Page 652 29.1 How Did Seed Plants Become Today’s Dominant Vegetation? ......Page 653 29.2 What Are the Major Groups of Gymnosperms? ......Page 657 29.3 What Features Contributed to the Success of the Angiosperms? ......Page 660 29.4 How Do Plants Support Our World? ......Page 667 30 Fungi: Recyclers, Pathogens, Parasites, and Plant Partners ......Page 671 30.1 What Is a Fungus? ......Page 672 30.2 How Do Fungi Interact with Other Organisms? ......Page 676 30.3 What Variations Exist among Fungal Life Cycles? ......Page 680 30.4 How Have Fungi Evolved and Diversified? ......Page 683 31 Animal Origins and the Evolution of Body Plans ......Page 690 31.1 What Characteristics Distinguish the Animals? ......Page 691 31.2 What Are the Features of Animal Body Plans? ......Page 694 31.3 How Do Animals Get Their Food? ......Page 696 31.4 How Do Life Cycles Differ among Animals? ......Page 699 31.5 What Are the Major Groups of Animals? ......Page 703 32 Protostome Animals ......Page 711 32.1 What Is a Protostome? ......Page 712 32.2 What Features Distinguish the Major Groups of Lophotrochozoans? ......Page 716 32.3 What Features Distinguish the Major Groups of Ecdysozoans? ......Page 724 32.4 Why Are Arthropods So Diverse? ......Page 726 An Overview of Protostome Evolution ......Page 734 33 Deuterostome Animals ......Page 737 33.1 What Is a Deuterostome? ......Page 738 33.2 What Are the Major Groups of Echinoderms and Hemichordates? ......Page 739 33.3 What New Features Evolved in the Chordates? ......Page 742 33.4 How Did Vertebrates Colonize the Land? ......Page 748 33.5 What Traits Characterize the Primates? ......Page 758 34 The Plant Body ......Page 764 34.1 What Is the Basic Body Plan of Plants? ......Page 765 34.2 How Does the Cell Wall Support Plant Growth and Form? ......Page 768 34.3 How Do Plant Tissues and Organs Originate? ......Page 770 34.4 How Do Meristems Build a Continuously Growing Plant? ......Page 773 34.5 How Has Domestication Altered Plant Form? ......Page 780 35 Transport in Plants ......Page 784 35.1 How Do Plants Take Up Water and Solutes? ......Page 785 35.2 How Are Water and Minerals Transported in the Xylem? ......Page 790 35.3 How Do Stomata Control the Loss of Water and the Uptake of CO2?......Page 793 35.4 How Are Substances Translocated in the Phloem? ......Page 795 36 Plant Nutrition ......Page 800 36.1 How Do Plants Acquire Nutrients? ......Page 801 36.2 What Mineral Nutrients Do Plants Require? ......Page 802 36.3 How Does Soil Structure Affect Plants? ......Page 804 36.4 How Do Fungi and Bacteria Increase Nutrient Uptake by Plant Roots? ......Page 807 36.5 How Do Carnivorous and Parasitic Plants Obtain a Balanced Diet? ......Page 812 37 Regulation of Plant Growth ......Page 816 37.1 How Does Plant Development Proceed? ......Page 817 37.2 What Do Gibberellins Do? ......Page 821 37.3 What Does Auxin Do? ......Page 824 37.4 What Are the Effects of Cytokinins, Ethylene, and Brassinosteroids? ......Page 829 37.5 How Do Photoreceptors Participate in Plant Growth Regulation? ......Page 833 38 Reproduction in Flowering Plants ......Page 839 38.1 How Do Angiosperms Reproduce Sexually? ......Page 840 38.2 What Determines the Transition from the Vegetative to the Flowering State? ......Page 847 38.3 How Do Angiosperms Reproduce Asexually? ......Page 854 39 Plant Responses to Environmental Challenges ......Page 859 39.1 How Do Plants Deal with Pathogens? ......Page 860 39.2 How Do Plants Deal with Herbivores? ......Page 864 39.3 How Do Plants Deal with Climatic Extremes? ......Page 868 39.4 How Do Plants Deal with Salt and Heavy Metals? ......Page 873 40 Physiology, Homeostasis, and Temperature Regulation ......Page 877 40.1 How Do Multicellular Animals Supply the Needs of Their Cells? ......Page 878 40.2 How Does Temperature Affect Living Systems? ......Page 883 40.3 How Do Animals Alter Their Heat Exchange with the Environment? ......Page 884 40.4 How Do Mammals Regulate Their Body Temperatures? ......Page 889 41 Animal Hormones ......Page 896 41.1 What Are Hormones and How Do They Work? ......Page 897 41.2 How Do the Nervous and Endocrine Systems Interact? ......Page 903 41.3 What Are the Major Mammalian Endocrine Glands and Hormones? ......Page 906 41.4 How Do We Study Mechanisms of Hormone Action? ......Page 913 42 Immunology: Animal Defense Systems ......Page 918 42.1 What Are the Major Defense Systems of Animals? ......Page 919 42.2 What Are the Characteristics of the Nonspecific Defenses? ......Page 922 42.3 How Does Specific Immunity Develop? ......Page 925 42.4 What Is the Humoral Immune Response? ......Page 930 42.5 What Is the Cellular Immune Response? ......Page 932 42.6 How Do Animals Make So Many Different Antibodies? ......Page 936 42.7 What Happens When the Immune System Malfunctions? ......Page 939 43 Animal Reproduction ......Page 944 43.1 How Do Animals Reproduce without Sex? ......Page 945 43.2 How Do Animals Reproduce Sexually? ......Page 947 43.3 How Do the Human Male and Female Reproductive Systems Work? ......Page 954 43.4 How Can Fertility Be Controlled? ......Page 961 44 Animal Development ......Page 967 44.1 How Does Fertilization Activate Development? ......Page 968 44.2 How Does Gastrulation Generate Multiple Tissue Layers? ......Page 973 44.3 How Do Organs and Organ Systems Develop? ......Page 980 44.4 How is the Growing Embryo Sustained? ......Page 982 44.5 What Are the Stages of Human Development? ......Page 984 45 Neurons and Nervous Systems ......Page 988 45.1 What Cells Are Unique to the Nervous System? ......Page 989 45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals? ......Page 993 45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells? ......Page 1001 46 Sensory Systems ......Page 1009 46.1 How Do Sensory Cells Convert Stimuli into Action Potentials? ......Page 1010 46.2 How Do Sensory Systems Detect Chemical Stimuli? ......Page 1012 46.3 How Do Sensory Systems Detect Mechanical Forces? ......Page 1015 46.4 How Do Sensory Systems Detect Light? ......Page 1021 47 The Mammalian Nervous System: Structure and Higher Function ......Page 1030 47.1 How Is the Mammalian Nervous System Organized? ......Page 1031 47.2 How Is Information Processed by Neural Networks? ......Page 1038 47.3 Can Higher Functions Be Understood in Cellular Terms? ......Page 1043 48 Musculoskeletal Systems ......Page 1051 48.1 How Do Muscles Contract? ......Page 1052 48.2 What Determines Muscle Performance? ......Page 1060 48.3 How Do Skeletal Systems and Muscles Work Together? ......Page 1063 49 Gas Exchange in Animals ......Page 1070 49.1 What Physical Factors Govern Respiratory Gas Exchange? ......Page 1071 49.2 What Adaptations Maximize Respiratory Gas Exchange? ......Page 1074 49.3 How Do Human Lungs Work? ......Page 1080 49.4 How Does Blood Transport Respiratory Gases? ......Page 1082 49.5 How Is Breathing Regulated? ......Page 1085 50 Circulatory Systems ......Page 1090 50.1 Why Do Animals Need a Circulatory System? ......Page 1091 50.2 How Have Vertebrate Circulatory Systems Evolved? ......Page 1093 50.3 How Does the Mammalian Heart Function? ......Page 1096 50.4 What Are the Properties of Blood and Blood Vessels? ......Page 1101 50.5 How Is the Circulatory System Controlled and Regulated? ......Page 1107 51 Nutrition, Digestion, and Absorption ......Page 1112 51.1 What Do Animals Require from Food? ......Page 1113 51.2 How Do Animals Ingest and Digest Food?......Page 1119 51.3 How Does the Vertebrate Gastrointestinal System Function? ......Page 1122 51.4 How Is the Flow of Nutrients Controlled and Regulated? ......Page 1129 52 Salt and Water Balance and Nitrogen Excretion ......Page 1136 52.1 How Do Excretory Systems Maintain Homeostasis? ......Page 1137 52.2 How Do Animals Excrete Nitrogen? ......Page 1139 52.3 How Do Invertebrate Excretory Systems Work? ......Page 1140 52.4 How Do Vertebrates Maintain Salt and Water Balance? ......Page 1142 52.5 How Does the Mammalian Kidney Produce Concentrated Urine? ......Page 1145 52.6 How Are Kidney Functions Regulated? ......Page 1152 53 Animal Behavior ......Page 1158 53.1 What Are the Origins of Behavioral Biology? ......Page 1159 53.2 How Can Genes Influence Behavior? ......Page 1162 53.3 How Does Behavior Develop? ......Page 1164 53.4 How Does Behavior Evolve? ......Page 1168 53.5 What Physiological Mechanisms Underlie Behavior? ......Page 1172 53.6 How Does Social Behavior Evolve? ......Page 1178 54 Ecology and the Distribution of Life ......Page 1185 54.1 What Is Ecology? ......Page 1186 54.2 Why Do Climates Vary Geographically? ......Page 1187 54.3 What Is a Biome? ......Page 1191 54.4 What Is a Biogeographic Region? ......Page 1202 54.5 How Is Life Distributed in Aquatic Environments? ......Page 1208 55 Population Ecology ......Page 1212 55.1 How Do Ecologists Study Populations? ......Page 1213 55.2 How Do Environmental Conditions Affect Life Histories? ......Page 1218 55.3 What Factors Limit Population Densities? ......Page 1219 55.4 How Does Habitat Variation Affect Population Dynamics? ......Page 1223 55.5 How Can Populations Be Managed Scientifically? ......Page 1225 56 Species Interaction and Coevolution ......Page 1230 56.1 What Types of Interactions Do Ecologists Study? ......Page 1231 56.2 How Do Antagonistic Interactions Evolve? ......Page 1233 56.3 How Do Mutualistic Interactions Evolve? ......Page 1239 56.4 What Are the Outcomes of Competition? ......Page 1243 57 Community Ecology ......Page 1248 57.1 What Are Ecological Communities? ......Page 1249 57.2 How Do Interactions among Species Influence Community Structure? ......Page 1253 57.3 What Patterns of Species Diversity Have Ecologists Observed? ......Page 1255 57.4 How Do Disturbances Affect Ecological Communities? ......Page 1259 57.5 How Does Species Richness Influence Community Stability? ......Page 1262 58 Ecosystems and Global Ecology ......Page 1266 58.1 What Are the Compartments of the Global Ecosystem? ......Page 1267 58.2 How Does Energy Flow through the Global Ecosystem? ......Page 1272 58.3 How Do Materials Cycle through the Global Ecosystem? ......Page 1274 58.4 What Services Do Ecosystems Provide? ......Page 1282 58.5 How Can Ecosystems Be Sustainably Managed? ......Page 1283 59 Conservation Biology ......Page 1287 59.1 What Is Conservation Biology? ......Page 1288 59.2 How Do Biologists Predict Changes in Biodiversity? ......Page 1290 59.3 What Factors Threaten Species Persistence? ......Page 1292 59.4 What Strategies Do Biologists Use to Protect Biodiversity? ......Page 1296 Appendix A: The Tree of Life ......Page 1305 Appendix B: Some Measurements Used in Biology ......Page 1312 Answers to Self-Quizzes ......Page 1314 Glossary ......Page 1316 Illustration Credits ......Page 1348 Index ......Page 1354