The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking

Description

This handbook is an international, comprehensive, reference tool in the field of trafficking in people and slavery. It covers everything from historical perspectives to cutting-edge topics to provide a high-level and systematic examination of the field which is at the forefront of both research and practice. It has an impressive breadth of entries from leading experts and international organisations to NGOs on the ground. This handbook is truly global with contributions from scholars and practitioners on virtually every continent (e.g. Europe, North America, Australia, Africa, Asia, and South America). This book also covers problematic areas that cannot be found in other reference works. The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking is divided into eight key sections: 1. History of Slavery and Trafficking in Persons 2. Explanations and Methods of Inquiry 3. Types of Trafficking in Persons 4. Trafficking in Persons and Response Mechanisms 5. Organizational Profiles 6. Country, Region and Local Response Mechanisms 7. The work of Non-Governmental Organizations 8. Future Issues and Directions in Controlling Trafficking in Persons. Preface......Page 5 Outline of the Handbook......Page 7 References......Page 8 Acknowledgments......Page 9 Contents......Page 11 Editors Biography......Page 21 Contributors......Page 23 Part I: Legacies of Slavery and Human Trafficking......Page 30 1 Understanding Historical Slavery, Its Legacies, and Its Lessons for Combating Modern-Day Slavery and Human Trafficking......Page 31 Introduction......Page 32 A Brief History of Transatlantic Slavery......Page 33 The Reparations Debate......Page 37 Modern-Day Slavery and Abolitionism......Page 39 References......Page 42 Introduction......Page 47 Historical Background......Page 48 Part 1: Tacky´s Rebellion......Page 49 Part 2: The Baptist War......Page 53 Conclusion......Page 59 References......Page 60 From the British National Archives in Kew, London......Page 61 3 Concepts of Slavery in the United States 1865-1914......Page 63 Slavery Within the United States: Coerced Labor Continued and the Nation Fails to Understand Its Past......Page 66 Antislavery Imperialism: The Influence of the International Context......Page 68 Racism Evolving: Othering the Slave, Othering the Slave Owner......Page 71 Slavery: White Slavery and Gender - A New Phenomenon?......Page 74 Conclusion......Page 76 References......Page 77 4 When Freeing the Slaves Was Illegal: ``Reverse-Trafficking´´ and the Unholy, Unruly Rule of Law......Page 79 Introduction......Page 80 A Most ``Peculiar Institution´´: A Genealogy of Slaveholder Law......Page 82 Enter the Underground Railroad......Page 85 Sidestepping Blame......Page 87 The Problem with Heroes......Page 89 In Conclusion: Discomforting Parallels and Unintended Consequences......Page 91 References......Page 92 5 International Legislation on White Slavery and Anti-trafficking in the Early Twentieth Century......Page 95 Introduction......Page 96 The Vigilance Movement and the Origins of White Slavery Accords......Page 97 International Agreement for the Suppression of the ``White Slave Traffic´´ and Its Enforcement......Page 98 The International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic 1910......Page 100 De-racializing the White Slave Trade: The League of Nations´ Action on Trafficking......Page 101 International Law After 1921: Toward Abolitionism......Page 103 Conclusion......Page 104 References......Page 105 6 Historical Evolution of the International Legal Responses to the Trafficking of Children: A Critique......Page 107 Introduction......Page 108 Childhood and Children´s Rights......Page 109 The International Legal Regulation of ``White Slavery´´......Page 110 International Conference on Traffic in Women and Children 1921......Page 111 The International Convention for the Suppression of Traffic in Women and Children 1921......Page 113 The League of Nations Registry Files 1919-1927......Page 114 Traffic in Women and Children Summary of Annual Reports 1927 and 1928: State Responses to Question 8......Page 116 The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 1989......Page 117 Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography (OPSC) 2000......Page 119 Optional Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children 2000......Page 120 Children and the Trafficking Protocol......Page 121 Conclusion......Page 122 References......Page 123 7 Human Trafficking in Canada as a Historical Continuation of the 1980s and 1990s Panics over Youth in Sex Trade......Page 124 Introduction......Page 125 Historical Predecessors: ``White Slavery´´ and Concerns over Youth in Sex Work......Page 126 Policing Trafficking......Page 128 Protection and Criminalization......Page 130 Conclusion......Page 136 References......Page 137 Media......Page 139 8 Portugal and Human Trafficking (1822-2018)......Page 141 A Rhetoric of Reaction and Colonial Project......Page 143 White Slave Trade Against Black Slave Trade?......Page 145 Protect Emigrants or Curtail the Right of Movement?......Page 147 Emigration as a Threat......Page 148 The Paths of Clandestine Emigration......Page 149 Smoke and Mirrors......Page 150 Epilogue: Human Trafficking, Democracy, and Europeanization......Page 152 References......Page 155 9 The Nebulous Definition of Slavery: Legal Versus Sociological Definitions of Slavery......Page 157 The International Law on Slavery......Page 158 The Legal Definition of Slavery Included in the 1926 Slavery Convention......Page 160 The Blurred Boundaries Between the Legal Definitions of Slavery, the Practices Similar to Slavery, Servitude, and Forced Labor......Page 163 The Sociological Definitions of Slavery......Page 166 Conclusion......Page 168 References......Page 169 Part II: Explanations and Methods of Inquiry......Page 171 10 Measuring the Nature and Prevalence of Human Trafficking......Page 172 Challenges to Measuring Trafficking in Persons......Page 173 Estimation Strategies Using Open-Source Information and Capture-Recapture Principles......Page 175 Multiple System Estimation......Page 177 Local Surveys or Field Observations......Page 178 Using Online Domain Data and Network Information to Measure Human Trafficking......Page 180 The Way Forward in Measuring Human Trafficking?......Page 182 References......Page 184 11 The UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons: An Aspirational Tool with Great Potential......Page 188 Background on UNODC Global Report on Human Trafficking......Page 189 Strengths......Page 190 Detected Cases as a Unit of Analysis......Page 191 Self-Reporting Bias......Page 192 Minimizing the Effects of Self-Reporting Bias......Page 194 Non-survey Data Supplements......Page 195 Purpose Statement......Page 196 Potential for Dual Functionality......Page 197 Conclusion......Page 198 References......Page 199 Further Reading......Page 200 12 Ethical Considerations for Studying Human Trafficking......Page 202 Methods and Research Design......Page 203 Negotiating Access......Page 206 The Researcher´s Position......Page 210 Data Collection......Page 212 Representation......Page 216 References......Page 217 13 Developing a Universal Standard of Care for Victims of Trafficking Under the Guiding Principles of Non-state Torture......Page 220 International Human Rights Law Regarding Torture......Page 221 The Nexus of Human Trafficking and Torture: Tactics of Coercion, Abuse, and Torture Used by Traffickers......Page 223 Symptomology of Trafficking and Torture Observed in Its Victims......Page 225 Optimizing Care for Victims of Trafficking: Utilizing Field-Based Standards and Guiding Principles......Page 227 References......Page 229 Further Reading......Page 230 14 Genealogies of Slavery......Page 231 Introduction......Page 232 Genealogy......Page 234 Case Law and Slavery Discourses......Page 237 Siliadin v. France, No. 73316/01, ECtHR 2005-VII......Page 238 Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia, No. 25965/04, ECtHR 2010......Page 240 L.E. v. Greece, No. 71545/12, ECtHR 2016......Page 241 SDGs and Slavery Discourses......Page 243 The UK, Slavery, and the SDGs......Page 245 Conclusion......Page 246 References......Page 247 Case Law......Page 249 15 ``No More Interviews Please´´: Experiences of Trafficking Survivors in Nepal......Page 250 Introduction/Context......Page 251 Praxis: Participatory Action Inquiry......Page 252 Reintegration of Trafficking Survivors......Page 253 Gender Oppression......Page 255 Systemic Enablers of Oppressions......Page 256 Research, Publications, and the Media......Page 257 Rehabilitative Centers......Page 260 Stigmatization Prevention......Page 261 Unpacking and Reconceptualizing Successful Reintegration......Page 262 Conclusion......Page 264 References......Page 266 16 A Comprehensive Gender Framework to Evaluate Anti-trafficking Policies and Programs......Page 269 Introduction......Page 270 The USDOS TIP Report and Measurement of National Anti-trafficking Efforts......Page 271 Criticisms Around the TIP Report......Page 274 Descriptions of Multilayer Framework to Evaluate Anti-trafficking Policies and Programs......Page 276 Evaluation of the First P: Prevention of Trafficking Under the Policy......Page 278 Evaluation of the Second P: Protection of Trafficking Victims......Page 279 Evaluation of the Third P: Prosecution of Traffickers......Page 280 Evaluation of the Fourth P: Prosecution of Traffickers......Page 281 Section 2: The Multi-pillar Gender-Sensitive Evaluation of Anti-trafficking Policies and Programs......Page 283 Section 3: Gender Construction Analysis of Policies and Programs......Page 286 Conclusion......Page 287 References......Page 288 17 Establishing the Constituent Elements of Trafficking in Persons: Conceptualizing ``Transnationality´´ and ``Involvement by .........Page 292 Introduction......Page 293 The Purpose of Clarification......Page 294 The Codification of Transnational (Organized) Crimes Under International Law......Page 295 Interpretational Tension and Identifying the Definitional Contours of Trafficking in Persons......Page 298 An Interpretational Way Forward?......Page 301 References......Page 302 Part III: Types of Trafficking in Human Beings......Page 305 18 The Challenge of Addressing Both Forced Labor and Sexual Exploitation......Page 306 Introduction......Page 307 Practical Insights on the Long-Lasting Definitional Debates Around Trafficking......Page 308 Addressing Different Types of Trafficking: Need for More Divergence or Convergence?......Page 310 Labor Trafficking: Still Under-detected? Or Rather Called by Another Name?......Page 311 Including Labor Trafficking Means Working with ``New´´ Actors......Page 312 Between National and International Cases of Trafficking......Page 314 The Delicate Collaboration with Law Enforcement for Undocumented Migrants......Page 315 The Gender Bias......Page 316 Combined Efforts to Tackle Multiple Forms of Trafficking: What Are the Advantages, Then?......Page 317 Conclusion......Page 318 References......Page 319 19 Telling Victims from Criminals: Human Trafficking for the Purposes of Criminal Exploitation......Page 322 Introduction: Broadening the Concept of Human Trafficking......Page 323 Forced Criminality as a Purpose of Human Trafficking......Page 324 Drug Crimes......Page 326 Property Crimes......Page 327 Violent Crimes......Page 328 Specific Difficulties Related to Victim Identification......Page 329 Lack of Victims´ Self-Identification......Page 330 Lack of Trust in the Police......Page 331 Non-punishment of Victims of Human Trafficking for the Purposes of Forced Criminality......Page 332 Conclusion......Page 335 References......Page 336 20 Trafficking of Human Beings for Organ (Cells and Tissue) Removal......Page 338 Organ (Cells and Tissue) Removal - An Exploitative Form of Trafficking of Human Beings (THB)......Page 339 United Nations Convention......Page 340 European Union Directive......Page 341 Limited Availability of Data......Page 342 Differentiating ``Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Organ Removal´´ from ``Organ Trafficking´´......Page 343 Typical Cases of Living Organ Donation......Page 344 Reported Cases of Organ Removal from the Deceased......Page 345 The Role of Medical Professionals and the Involvement of Clinics......Page 346 Recipients as Offenders?......Page 347 Poorly Educated Victims - The Problem of Informed Consent......Page 348 The Challenges in Trying to Identify the Victims......Page 349 Conclusions: Strategies for Preventing Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Organ Removal......Page 350 Excursus: Reasons for Organ Shortages......Page 351 Increasing Identification Rate......Page 352 References......Page 353 Legal Frameworks......Page 355 21 Defining Child Trafficking for Labor Exploitation, Forced Child Labor, and Child Labor......Page 357 Introduction......Page 358 Child Work......Page 359 Child Labor......Page 360 Forced Child Labor......Page 363 Child Trafficking for Labor Exploitation......Page 364 References......Page 367 22 Domestic Sex Trafficking of Children......Page 370 Children at Risk for Being Trafficked......Page 373 Poverty......Page 374 Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (LGBTQ) Youth......Page 375 Sex and Gender......Page 376 Maltreatment......Page 377 Forms of Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking......Page 378 Gang-Controlled Trafficking......Page 379 Family-Controlled Trafficking......Page 380 Assisting Youth in Exiting the Life......Page 381 Services for Survivors......Page 382 Conclusion......Page 383 References......Page 384 23 The Spoiled Supply Chain of Child Labor......Page 388 Children: A Vulnerable Population for Slave Labor in Western Africa......Page 389 Life on the Cocoa Plantation......Page 391 Supply and Demand......Page 392 Nestlé´s Creating Shared Values......Page 393 Creating Shared Values and Child Labor Speculations......Page 394 Solutions for the Cocoa Industry......Page 396 Conclusion......Page 397 References......Page 398 24 Dynamics of Child Labor Trafficking in Southeast Asia: India......Page 400 Nature and Extent of Child Labor Trafficking Globally......Page 401 Children Trafficked for Sexual Exploitation......Page 402 Child Exploitation for Labor and Other Services......Page 403 Nature and Extent of Child Labor Trafficking in India......Page 404 International Laws and Conventions and Child Labor Trafficking in India......Page 405 Child Trafficking Inside and Outside of India......Page 407 Dynamics of Child Labor......Page 408 Social, Cultural, and Structural Dynamics......Page 410 Urbanization......Page 411 Suggestions for Control and Prevention......Page 412 Modification and Enforcement of Existing Child Protection Laws......Page 413 Efforts Should Begin at the Grassroot Level......Page 414 References......Page 415 25 Child Trafficking for Adoption Purposes: A Criminological Analysis of the Illegal Adoption Market......Page 418 The Basic Logic of Routine Activity Theory......Page 419 Demand Component......Page 420 Supply Component......Page 422 Social Control Component......Page 424 Criminogenic Asymmetries Between Demand and Source Countries......Page 427 Cycles of Abuse and Displacements Effects of Supply Reduction......Page 430 Conclusion......Page 431 References......Page 432 26 Trafficking and the Boko Haram Conflict: The Not So Good, the Bad, and the Outright Ugly......Page 435 Introduction......Page 436 Boko Haram......Page 437 Boko Haram and Trafficking......Page 438 Chibok Girls´ Abductions......Page 441 Dapchi Girls´ Abduction......Page 442 The Stigma Associated with Trafficking......Page 443 Female Suicide Bombers......Page 444 Importance of the Women Peace and Security Agenda in the Prevention of Trafficking......Page 445 Role of the Media and Trafficking......Page 446 Role of Female Hunters......Page 447 National Response to Trafficking......Page 448 Recommendations......Page 449 References......Page 450 27 Family Violence and Exploitation: Examining the Contours of Violence and Exploitation......Page 453 Introduction......Page 454 The Australian Legal and Policy Background: Migration Law, Trafficking, and Slavery Offences......Page 455 Case Studies......Page 457 Rahmina......Page 458 Achol......Page 460 Chalai......Page 461 Implications......Page 462 Conclusion......Page 464 References......Page 465 28 Sex Trafficking as Structural Gender-Based Violence: Overview and Trauma Implications......Page 467 Underlying Factors: Sexism and Gender-Based Violence......Page 468 Defining Sex Trafficking in the Context of the Commercial Sex Industry......Page 470 Risk Factors for Sex Trafficking......Page 471 Methods of Recruitment......Page 473 Methods of Control......Page 476 Mental Health-Based Implications: Post-traumatic Stress Disorder......Page 477 Summary......Page 479 References......Page 480 29 From the Street Corner to the Digital World: How the Digital Age Impacts Sex Trafficking Detection and Data Collection......Page 482 Victims......Page 483 Traffickers......Page 485 Technology Used for Trafficking......Page 487 Technology Used Against Trafficking......Page 490 Conclusion......Page 493 References......Page 494 30 The Onset of Global Violent Extremism and Its Nexus with Human Trafficking......Page 496 Introduction......Page 497 Trafficking Tactics Used by Violent Extremists......Page 498 Tactics of Trafficking, Exploitation, and Violence Used by Boko Haram......Page 499 Tactics of Exploitation and Violence Used by ISIS......Page 501 References......Page 502 31 The Protocol on Trafficking in Persons and Transplant Tourism......Page 504 References......Page 515 32 Child/Forced/Servile Marriages Human Trafficking......Page 517 Introduction......Page 518 What Is Marriage?......Page 519 What Is Child/Early Marriage?......Page 520 What Is ``Forced Marriage´´?......Page 521 Circumstances Under Which Marriage Can Be Classified as Forced Marriage: Servitude, Slavery, and/or Trafficking......Page 522 Marriages Without Clear and Full Consent of One or Both Individuals Getting Married......Page 523 Economic Incentives......Page 524 Extent and Prevalence of Forced Marriages: How Many?......Page 525 Forced Marriage and Human Trafficking......Page 527 Family Honor and Pride......Page 528 High Premium on Virginity......Page 529 Forced Marriages in the Context of Human Rights Violation......Page 530 Conclusion......Page 531 References......Page 532 33 Gang Sex Trafficking in the United States......Page 534 Gang Sex Trafficking: Definition......Page 535 Method......Page 536 Gang Sex Trafficking Patterns in the United States......Page 538 Pimp Control......Page 540 Money Use and Management......Page 542 US Gang Trafficking Network Types......Page 543 Other Types of Sex Trafficking in the United States......Page 545 China and Asia......Page 546 Dutch/The Netherlands......Page 547 Islamic State (ISIS)......Page 548 Implications for Practice......Page 549 References......Page 550 34 The Human Trafficking of Men: The Forgotten Few......Page 554 Introduction......Page 555 Defining and Contextualizing Adult Male Trafficking......Page 556 Identifying the Specific Types of Adult Male Trafficking......Page 560 Recording Adult Male Trafficking Internationally......Page 561 Southeast Asia......Page 562 Responding to the Needs of Adult Male Trafficking Victims......Page 564 Cross-References......Page 566 References......Page 567 Part IV: Human Trafficking and Response Mechanisms......Page 569 35 The Swedish Approach to Prostitution and Trafficking in Human Beings Through a Gender Equality Lens......Page 570 Introduction......Page 571 Sites of Application......Page 572 Aiding and Abetting......Page 573 Penalties for the Purchase of a Sexual Service......Page 574 Gender Equality Is a Core Element in the Struggle to Eliminate Prostitution and Trafficking in Human Beings in Sweden......Page 576 Background......Page 577 Who Are the Men that Purchase Sexual Services?......Page 578 The Offence that Prohibits the Purchase of a Sexual Service as a Deterrent......Page 579 Survivors and Victims of Prostitution and Trafficking in Human Beings for Sexual Purposes......Page 580 Capacity Within the Justice System to Investigate and Prosecute Prostitution and Human Trafficking Offences......Page 581 The Purchase of Sexual Services in Another Country Is Still Not Prohibited......Page 582 National Debate......Page 584 International Debate......Page 585 The Engagement of a Committed Women´s Movement......Page 586 The Removal of Market Incentives......Page 588 Ongoing Independent Monitoring......Page 589 Cross-References......Page 590 References......Page 591 Judgments......Page 592 36 Creating Sanctuary: Trauma-Informed Change for Survivors of Sex Trafficking and Commercial Sexual Exploitation......Page 594 Introduction......Page 595 Trauma......Page 596 A Trauma-Informed Approach......Page 597 Trauma-Informed Care: Service Approaches for Sex Trafficking Survivors......Page 598 The Sanctuary Model......Page 599 S.E.L.F.......Page 600 Toolkit......Page 602 Recognizing Reenactment: Rescripting......Page 603 The Parallel Process......Page 605 Creating a Trauma-Responsive System of Care......Page 608 References......Page 609 37 Exploring Human Rights in the Context of Enforcement-Based Anti-trafficking in Persons Responses......Page 612 Introduction......Page 613 International Agreements and Ineffective Protections: Human Trafficking as a Transnational Crime......Page 614 Additional Human Rights Protections Outside of the Protocol......Page 618 Critical Analysis of Frameworks of Protection in an Enforcement-Based Context......Page 622 Summary......Page 627 References......Page 628 38 UN Palermo Trafficking Protocol Eighteen Years On: A Critique......Page 633 The Adoption of the UN Trafficking Protocol as an Instrument of Transnational Criminal Law......Page 634 The Definition of Trafficking in Persons......Page 636 The (Thin) Line Between Trafficking in Persons and the Smuggling of Migrants......Page 644 The (Scarce) Protection of Trafficking Victims......Page 645 Conclusion......Page 647 Cross-References......Page 648 References......Page 649 39 Criminal Justice System Responses to Human Trafficking......Page 651 Criminalization Frameworks and Legal Responses......Page 652 Challenges to Police Identification of Human Trafficking......Page 654 New Mandate for Local Law Enforcement......Page 655 Training Gaps......Page 656 Corruption and Complicity with Traffickers......Page 657 Lack of Resources and Need for Multiagency Coordination......Page 658 The Need for Specialized Investigators......Page 659 Victim-Centered/Trauma-Informed Approach......Page 660 Challenges to Prosecution......Page 661 Uncertainty About the Evidence Necessary to Prove a Case......Page 662 Institutional Infrastructure to Support Prosecution......Page 663 References......Page 664 40 Multisector Collaboration Against Human Trafficking......Page 668 Introduction......Page 669 Origins and Forms of Multisector Collaborations Against Human Trafficking......Page 670 US Government Efforts to Initiate and Sustain Domestic Multisector Collaboration Against Human Trafficking......Page 671 Challenges in Multisector Collaboration to Counter Human Trafficking......Page 673 Tensions Due to Differing Values, Beliefs, and Priorities......Page 674 Example: Conflicting Sector-Based Concepts of a Victim-Centered Approach to Human Trafficking......Page 675 Gender and Race......Page 676 Promising Practices......Page 678 Conclusion......Page 679 References......Page 680 41 Health and Social Service-Based Human Trafficking Response Models......Page 682 Introduction......Page 683 Coordinating Body......Page 686 Guiding Principles and Values......Page 687 Victim Identification Procedure......Page 690 Referral and Assistance Protocol......Page 693 Discussion......Page 697 Conclusion......Page 699 Appendix A. Examples of human trafficking identification tools......Page 700 References......Page 711 42 The Investigation and Prosecution of Traffickers: Challenges and Opportunities......Page 716 The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Toolkit (2008) and United Nations´ Themes......Page 717 The EU......Page 720 Canada......Page 721 The United States......Page 724 Investigation and Prosecution Case Study of the United Kingdom: Challenges and Best Practice......Page 726 Conclusion......Page 729 References......Page 730 43 Combating Trafficking in Persons Through Public Awareness and Legal Education of Duty Bearers in India......Page 733 Introduction......Page 734 Trafficking in Persons in India......Page 735 International Standards and Guidelines with Reference to Awareness and Knowledge of Trafficking in Persons......Page 737 Public Awareness and Legal Education for Duty Bearers: Why and By Whom Required......Page 739 Reasons for the Gaps in Awareness and Legal Knowledge of Both the General Public and the Duty Bearers......Page 741 Current Government and Nongovernment Initiatives in India Towards Legal and Public Education on Human Trafficking......Page 744 Recommendations for Curtailing Human Trafficking Through Public Awareness and Legal Education of Duty Bearers......Page 748 References......Page 750 44 It´s Your Business: The Role of the Private Sector in Human Trafficking......Page 753 Introduction......Page 754 Evidence on Private-Sector Involvement......Page 755 Infiltrating Legitimate Businesses: An Organized Crime Frame......Page 758 Crime in the Workplace: A Corporate Crime Frame......Page 759 Crime in Legitimate Markets: A Network Frame......Page 761 The Limitations of the Criminal Justice System......Page 763 Private-Sector Responses......Page 764 Conclusions......Page 765 References......Page 766 45 A Complex Systems Stratagem to Combating Human Trafficking......Page 771 The Complexity of Human Trafficking......Page 772 Complex Systems Theory [and Thinking] as a Response to Reductionism......Page 774 Human Trafficking as a Complex System......Page 777 Combating Human Trafficking: Embracing the ``Whole´´......Page 783 Summary......Page 786 References......Page 787 46 The Failing International Legal Framework on Migrant Smuggling and Human Trafficking......Page 791 Introduction......Page 792 The Convoluted and Confusing International Legal Framework......Page 793 The Failure of a Legal Fiction......Page 795 The Impact of the Criminalization Approach......Page 797 Ineffective International Cooperation......Page 798 Implications for Law Enforcement......Page 799 No Measurable Results......Page 800 Criminalization of Immigration......Page 801 Increased Vulnerability of Migrants and Victims......Page 802 Academic Research......Page 803 Cross-References......Page 804 References......Page 805 47 Psychological Care and Support for the Survivors of Trafficking......Page 809 Establishment and Purpose of the IOM RC......Page 810 Characteristics of the Survivors......Page 811 Counsellor-Survivor Relationship......Page 813 Roles of a Counselling Psychologist......Page 814 Psychological Rehabilitation at IOM RC......Page 815 Special Challenges Experienced by Counselling Psychologists Working with Survivors......Page 816 Fitness for Providing Psychological Counselling and Preventing Burnout......Page 818 Cross-References......Page 820 References......Page 821 48 Human Trafficking in Supply Chains and the Way Forward......Page 823 Introduction......Page 824 Method of Research and Development of Observations......Page 825 Scale of the Problem......Page 826 The Evolution of the Ethical Audit......Page 828 Methods of Ethical Auditing and Their Weaknesses......Page 829 Opacity in Human Rights Responsibilities......Page 833 Foundational Problem 1: Poverty......Page 834 Foundational Problem 2: Urbanization......Page 835 Foundational Problem 3: Broken Labor Sourcing......Page 836 The Future of Ethical Supply Chain Efforts......Page 837 Bottom-Up Disruptive Technology: Strengths and Weaknesses in Emerging Interventions......Page 838 Worker Surveys......Page 839 Online Supplier Vetting Platforms......Page 840 Conclusion......Page 841 References......Page 844 49 Family-Based Non-state Torturers Who Traffic Their Daughters: Praxis Principles and Healing Epiphanies......Page 846 Introduction......Page 847 Responding to Stresses......Page 848 Victimization, Credibility, and Reliability......Page 849 A Specific Typology......Page 850 Non-State Torture Victimization-Traumatization Informed Care......Page 852 Principle 1: Societal Formation of Patriarchy and Misogyny Outlined in Fig. 3......Page 854 Principle 2: ``Culture´´ Shock and Vicarious Trauma......Page 855 Principle 3: Observations of Various Survival and Healing Responses......Page 857 Principle 1 - Epiphany 1: Patriarchal Societal Formation, Feminism, and Human Rights......Page 860 Principle 2 - Epiphany 2: ``Culture´´ Shock and Vicarious Trauma and Challenging Beliefs......Page 861 Principle 3 - Epiphany 3: Other Normal Responses of Escaping Black Boxes of Memories......Page 862 Conclusion: Best Practices......Page 865 References......Page 866 50 Mediated Representation of Human Trafficking: Issues, Context, and Consequence......Page 871 Introduction......Page 872 Main Issues in Media Representation of Human Trafficking......Page 873 Zooming in: The Three S´s of THB Reporting - Stereotyping, Simplification, and Sensationalism......Page 875 Zooming Out: Context and Consequence of THB Reporting......Page 879 Recommendations......Page 882 References......Page 884 51 Aesthetic Whistle-Blowers: The Importance and Limitations of Art and Media in Addressing Human Trafficking......Page 887 Literary Roots to the Original Abolition Movement......Page 888 Literature´s Ability to Influence Memory......Page 892 Aesthetic Whistle-Blowing: Solzhenitsyn......Page 893 Contemporary Refugee Literatures: Oral Storytelling......Page 895 Artists: Complicit Agents of Justice or Injustice......Page 897 Truth-Telling in Our Times......Page 898 Summary......Page 900 References......Page 901 Part V: Local/National/International Response Mechanisms......Page 904 52 Regional Responses to Human Trafficking in Southeast Asia and Australasia......Page 905 The Nature and Scope of Trafficking in the Region......Page 906 Prosecution, Protection, and Prevention......Page 908 Partnership......Page 910 Prosecution, Protection, and Prevention......Page 912 Partnership......Page 914 References......Page 916 53 An Examination of Counter Trafficking Responses in the Asian Region: Hong Kong and Singapore......Page 920 Introduction......Page 921 Human Trafficking in the Era of Modern Slavery: The Counter Trafficking Framework......Page 922 Singapore......Page 923 Response: Law......Page 924 Response: Victim Support......Page 926 Limitations......Page 927 Hong Kong......Page 929 Response: Law......Page 930 Response: Victim Support......Page 931 Implementation: Data and Issues......Page 932 Conclusion: Interrogating the Impact of ``Counter Trafficking´´ on Vulnerable Migrants......Page 933 References......Page 934 54 Breaking Bondages: Control Methods, ``Juju,´´ and Human Trafficking......Page 938 Introduction......Page 939 The Arsenal of Control Methods Used by Traffickers: An Overview......Page 940 Physical Coercive Control Methods......Page 941 Nonphysical Coercive Control Methods......Page 943 Juju and Human Trafficking......Page 947 Divination and the Spirit World......Page 948 Juju as Control Mechanism......Page 949 Suggested Response Mechanisms......Page 950 Cross-References......Page 952 References......Page 953 55 The Quest for Education as a Factor of Vulnerability to Child Trafficking: Reflections on ``Child Rescue´´ from the Perspec.........Page 955 The Challenge of Defining Child Trafficking......Page 957 The Context of Child Trafficking in Nigeria/West Africa......Page 958 Accommodating Children´s Agency and Resilience Within Child Trafficking Interventions......Page 959 Seeking Children´s Perspectives in Nigerian Trafficking Situations......Page 960 Child Agency in Seeking Educational Opportunities: The Limits of Addressing Children´s Needs After ``Rescue´´ from Trafficking......Page 961 Discussion: Protecting Child Trafficking Survivors by Integrating Education into ``Rescue´´ Efforts......Page 966 Summary......Page 967 References......Page 968 56 Deportation: Challenging the Caribbean´s Anti-trafficking Policy......Page 971 Introduction......Page 972 The Role of Postcolonialism Theory in Examining Human Trafficking......Page 973 Human Trafficking and Sex Trafficking in the Caribbean: An Overview......Page 974 Sex Trafficking in the Caribbean......Page 975 The Role of Ethnography in Human Trafficking......Page 977 The Silent Crime in the Caribbean......Page 978 Conclusion......Page 982 References......Page 983 57 The Role of the Border and Border Policies in Efforts to Combat Human Trafficking: A Case Study of the Cascadia Region of t.........Page 986 Policy Context......Page 987 British Columbia and Washington State......Page 989 Cross-Border Collaboration......Page 990 Challenges to Measuring Policy Efficacy......Page 993 Conclusion: The Path Forward......Page 996 References......Page 998 58 Human Trafficking in Southeastern Europe: Council of Europe Perspective......Page 1001 Introduction......Page 1002 Recent THB Trends in SEE Countries......Page 1003 Labor Exploitation......Page 1006 Child Trafficking......Page 1007 Identification of Victims......Page 1008 Compensation and Legal Redress......Page 1009 Other Issues......Page 1010 Conclusion......Page 1011 Cross-References......Page 1013 References......Page 1014 59 An Attempt to Control Human Trafficking from a Human Rights-Based Approach: The Case of Spain......Page 1015 Introduction......Page 1016 Historical Evolution of Human Trafficking in Spanish Criminal Law......Page 1017 The Concept of Human Trafficking in Spanish Criminal Law......Page 1018 Convictions for Human Trafficking in Spain......Page 1020 The Process of Identification......Page 1021 Data on the Identification of Trafficking Victims in Spain......Page 1022 Period of Recovery and Reflection......Page 1024 Residence and Work Permits......Page 1025 Protection and Assistance of Human Trafficking Victims in Spain......Page 1026 Summary: Critical Assessment and Proposals for Improvement......Page 1028 Cross-References......Page 1030 References......Page 1031 60 Response for Human Trafficking in Poland in a Nutshell......Page 1032 Introduction......Page 1033 Human Trafficking in Poland: Genesis and Specifics......Page 1034 Legal Regulations on Human Trafficking in Poland......Page 1039 A System of Eliminating Human Trafficking in Poland......Page 1042 Conclusion......Page 1045 Cross-References......Page 1046 References......Page 1047 61 Tackling Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking in Wales......Page 1049 A Brief Historical Overview of Action to Tackle Human Trafficking in Wales......Page 1050 The Wales-Specific Structure to Tackling Human Trafficking......Page 1051 Wales Anti-Slavery Coordinator......Page 1052 Wales Anti-Slavery Leadership Group......Page 1053 A Structured Response to Modern Slavery in Wales......Page 1055 Prosecutor Commitments......Page 1056 Police Response......Page 1057 Children Who May Be Trafficked......Page 1058 Gwent Missing Children´s Hub......Page 1059 Awareness......Page 1060 Strategic Objective 6: ``The Protection of Vulnerable People in the Homeless Sector in Wales´´......Page 1062 Strategic Objective 7: Continue to Develop and Deliver a Consistent Anti-slavery Training Program for Wales......Page 1063 Victim Response Pathway......Page 1064 Strategic Objective 9: Working with ``Source Countries´´......Page 1065 Wales Anti-slavery Logo: Tested Coordinated Action at a Glance......Page 1066 References......Page 1067 62 Human Trafficking in the Russian Federation: Scope of the Problem......Page 1069 Introduction......Page 1070 The Scope of Human Trafficking in Russia: Pre the ``Perestroika´´ to the Twenty-First Century......Page 1071 Available Statistics on Human Trafficking in the Russian Federation......Page 1075 Existing Types of Trafficking in Persons in the Russian Federation......Page 1076 Recruitment Methods and Mechanisms of Human Trafficking......Page 1077 Push and Pull Factors of Human Trafficking in Russia......Page 1078 Existing Labor Practices in National Construction Projects as Pre-conditions for Trafficking......Page 1079 Irregular Migration and Human Trafficking Codependence......Page 1080 The North Korean Labor Trafficking Case......Page 1081 Solutions and Challenges in Preventing and Combating Human Trafficking in RF......Page 1082 Cases of Successful Partnerships of NGOs and the State......Page 1083 Conclusion......Page 1086 References......Page 1087 63 Human Trafficking in Greece......Page 1091 Introduction......Page 1092 The Migration and Human Trafficking Nexus in Greece......Page 1093 Legislative Responses in a Changing Landscape......Page 1095 Trafficking in and Through Greece: What We Know......Page 1096 The Legislative Framework......Page 1101 Anti-trafficking in Practice......Page 1103 Conclusion......Page 1106 References......Page 1107 64 Legislation, Policies, and Practices Against Trafficking in Human Beings: The Case of Kosovo......Page 1111 Introduction......Page 1112 Legal and Institutional Framework......Page 1114 Framework in Theory and in Practice......Page 1117 Identification of Victims......Page 1119 Prevention and Protection of Victims......Page 1120 Investigation, Prosecution, and Sentencing......Page 1121 Victims as Witnesses......Page 1122 Recommendations and Future Directions......Page 1123 Conclusion......Page 1126 References......Page 1127 65 (Anti-)trafficking for Labor Exploitation in Romania: A Labor Perspective......Page 1131 Introduction......Page 1132 Legal Context of Trafficking in Romania......Page 1133 Anti-trafficking in Romania......Page 1135 Nature of Labor Exploitation in Romania......Page 1136 Poverty and Poor Working Conditions......Page 1138 Informal Economy......Page 1140 Romania as Emigration Country?......Page 1141 Conclusion......Page 1143 Cross-References......Page 1144 References......Page 1145 66 Human Trafficking Cases in Chile: Challenges for Reducing the ``Dark Figure´´......Page 1148 Introduction......Page 1149 Border Control Policy Impact on Human Trafficking: The Case of Tarapac......Page 1150 Criminal Justice System Limitations: Trafficking Definition and Identification......Page 1153 Limitations for Estimating the ``Dark Figure´´ on Human Trafficking in Chile......Page 1155 Conclusion: Challenges for the Identification of Victims and for Reducing the Dark Figure on Human Trafficking......Page 1157 References......Page 1159 67 The Application of the Non-punishment Principle to Victims of Human Trafficking in the United States......Page 1162 The Non-punishment Principle in International Law......Page 1163 Trafficking-Related Offenses......Page 1166 The Non-punishment Principle in US Law......Page 1167 Immunity and Diversion......Page 1169 Affirmative Defense......Page 1172 Vacating Criminal Convictions......Page 1173 Conclusion......Page 1175 Cross-References......Page 1176 References......Page 1177 68 Combatting Trafficking in Human Beings: A Step on the Road to Global Justice?......Page 1179 Introduction......Page 1180 The Legislation in Force......Page 1181 Statement of Purpose......Page 1182 Evaluation of Effects......Page 1184 Human Trafficking and Global Justice......Page 1191 Governing Through Crime......Page 1192 References......Page 1196 69 Combatting Human Trafficking in Lebanon: Prosecution, Protection, and Prevention......Page 1200 Overview of the Situation of Human Trafficking in Lebanon Before 2011......Page 1201 Current Lebanese Law on the Punishment for Human Trafficking......Page 1204 Prosecution and Investigations......Page 1205 Preventive Measures......Page 1208 Conclusion......Page 1209 Further Reading......Page 1211 Lebanese NGO´S Website......Page 1212 70 Strategies to Restore Justice for Sex Trafficked Native Women......Page 1213 Introduction......Page 1214 Colonial Era and American Revolution......Page 1215 ``Gynemutilation´´......Page 1216 Ports and Waterways......Page 1217 Historical Evidence of Prostitution and Trafficking Around Duluth......Page 1218 Disparities in Native American Women´s Lives in US......Page 1219 Disparities in First Nation Women´s Lives in Canada......Page 1220 Prostituted and Trafficked First Nation Women in Canada......Page 1221 Contemporary Prostitution and Trafficking of Native Women in Duluth......Page 1222 Contemporary Prostitution and Trafficking of First Nation Women in Thunder Bay......Page 1223 Legal Strategies......Page 1224 Pursuing Civil Litigation......Page 1225 Support for Prostituted and Sex Trafficked Indigenous Women......Page 1227 Duluth as a Case Study......Page 1228 Conclusion......Page 1229 References......Page 1230 71 Human Trafficking in China......Page 1235 History......Page 1236 Scope of Human Trafficking......Page 1237 Forced Marriages......Page 1238 Forced Labor......Page 1239 Forced Sex Work......Page 1240 Human Smuggling......Page 1241 Response Mechanisms: Policies and Strategies......Page 1242 Policy Recommendations......Page 1244 References......Page 1245 Part VI: Organizational Profiles......Page 1248 72 Explaining Human Trafficking: Modern Day-Slavery......Page 1249 Causes and Contributing Factors of Human Trafficking......Page 1250 Push and Pull Factors......Page 1251 Capitalism Theory and Trafficking in Persons......Page 1252 Globalization......Page 1253 Demand and Supply Theory......Page 1254 Economics......Page 1255 Human Rights-Based Explanation......Page 1256 Victim-Oriented Framework and Theories......Page 1257 Conclusion......Page 1262 References......Page 1263 73 Human Trafficking: An International Response......Page 1267 General Human Rights Instruments......Page 1268 Specific Instruments......Page 1269 Affected Rights......Page 1274 The Right to Liberty and Security of the Person......Page 1275 The Right to Privacy......Page 1276 The Right Not to Be Subjected to Inhumane or Degrading Treatment or Torture......Page 1277 The Right to Equality......Page 1281 The Right to Work......Page 1282 Remedies......Page 1283 Enforcement Challenges and Possible Solutions......Page 1285 Conclusion......Page 1287 References......Page 1288 74 EU Anti-trafficking Coordinator: Trajectory of a Unique Mandate......Page 1291 Developing the EU Area of Freedom, Security, and Justice......Page 1292 The Policy Impetus......Page 1293 Stockholm Programme and the Post-Lisbon Reality......Page 1295 The Role of the European Parliament......Page 1299 Toward a Legislative Proposal......Page 1301 The Mandate in Function......Page 1305 References......Page 1309 75 National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings and Sexual Violence Against Children, the Netherlands......Page 1311 Historical Development and Expansion of the Office of the National Rapporteur......Page 1312 Organization and Financing of the National Rapporteur......Page 1313 Reports of the National Rapporteur......Page 1315 Key Quantitative Figures......Page 1316 Collaborative Research in Estimating the Number of Victims in the Netherlands......Page 1317 Research Influencing Policy......Page 1318 Recommendations of the National Rapporteur......Page 1319 National Legislation......Page 1321 Regulatory Responses......Page 1323 Regulating the Prostitution Sector......Page 1324 Awareness Raising and Increased Protection for (Potential) Victims......Page 1325 Protection of Foreign Victims and Amendments to the B8 Regulation......Page 1326 Training, Awareness, and Identification......Page 1327 Prosecution and Trial......Page 1328 External Evaluation of the Work of the National Rapporteur......Page 1329 References......Page 1331 76 Sale of Children and Trafficking in Children as International Crimes......Page 1333 Introduction......Page 1334 Child Marriage and Sexual Abuse and Exploitation......Page 1337 Sale of Children on the Move......Page 1338 Sale of Children Facilitated by Information Technology......Page 1339 Sale of Children and Forced Labor......Page 1340 Sale of Children and Illegal Adoption......Page 1342 Sale of Children and Commercial Surrogacy......Page 1344 The Mandate of the United Nations Special Rapporteur as an Institutional Response......Page 1346 Concluding Remarks......Page 1349 References......Page 1350 77 Protection of Migrants Against Labor Exploitation in the Regulation of Migration in the EU......Page 1352 Introduction......Page 1353 Definitions......Page 1354 Intra-EU Labor Migration......Page 1355 Residence Right......Page 1356 Equal Treatment......Page 1357 Access to Social Security......Page 1358 Admission to the EU Territory......Page 1359 Residence Right......Page 1360 Access to Work......Page 1361 Equal Treatment......Page 1362 Undocumented Migrants: The Employers´ Sanctions Directive......Page 1363 Conclusion......Page 1364 References......Page 1366 78 Return on Investment: Spending on Combatting Human Trafficking......Page 1367 Introduction......Page 1368 Research Limitations......Page 1370 Historical Underpinnings in Defining Human Trafficking......Page 1372 Spending in an Illegal Market......Page 1373 Conclusions......Page 1375 References......Page 1377 79 European Court of Human Rights and the Right Not to Be Subjected to Slavery, Servitude, Forced Labor, and Human Trafficking......Page 1382 Introduction......Page 1383 Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia: The Addition of Human Trafficking and the Expansion of States´ Positive Obligations......Page 1384 C.N. and V. v. France: Clarification as to the Distinction Between Forced Labor and Servitude......Page 1386 M. and Others v. Italy and Bulgaria: Reaffirmation of Human Trafficking......Page 1388 L.E. v. Greece: A Slight Retreat......Page 1389 J. and Others v. Austria: Continuation of the Uncertainty Introduced with the Addition of Human Trafficking......Page 1391 Chowdury and Others v. Greece: The Vulnerability of Migrant Workers......Page 1393 Conclusion......Page 1395 References......Page 1396 Introduction......Page 1397 Mandate and Duties of the Ombudsman as the National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings......Page 1399 Work of the National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings in Practice......Page 1401 Foreword......Page 1406 Provisions on Assisting Victims of Human Trafficking in International and EU Law......Page 1407 Report on the Effectiveness of the Legislation Applying to Assistance for Victims of Human Trafficking......Page 1408 Discussion and Analysis......Page 1411 Conclusion......Page 1412 References......Page 1413 Part VII: The Work of Nongovernmental Organizations......Page 1415 81 Major International Counter-Trafficking Organizations: Addressing Human Trafficking from Multiple Directions......Page 1416 Introduction......Page 1417 United Nations and Intergovernmental Organization Initiatives......Page 1419 Policy and Advocacy Efforts by Nongovernment Organizations......Page 1421 Public-Private Initiatives......Page 1423 Networks and Coalitions......Page 1424 Victim Services......Page 1426 Awareness and Movement-Building Organizations......Page 1427 Summary......Page 1428 References......Page 1429 Organizations and Resources......Page 1430 82 Soroptimist International´s Work in the Prevention of Modern-Day Slavery: Wales as a Good Practice Example of Partnership W.........Page 1432 Background......Page 1433 The Work of the Four Soroptimist International Federations on Modern Slavery/Human Trafficking......Page 1434 Soroptimist International of the Americas......Page 1435 Soroptimist International Europe......Page 1436 Soroptimist International South West Pacific......Page 1437 Soroptimist International Great Britain and Ireland......Page 1438 UK Programme Action Committee (UKPAC)......Page 1439 Wales as a Good Practice Example for Successful Partnership in the Fight to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings......Page 1440 Conclusion......Page 1446 References......Page 1447 Legislation......Page 1448 83 NGOs Combating the Problem of Human Trafficking in South Asian Countries: A Review of Legal and Administrative Measures wit.........Page 1449 Community-Based Prevention......Page 1451 Economic Rehabilitation......Page 1452 Bhabna Association for People´s Upliftment......Page 1453 Anti-trafficking Centers......Page 1454 Group Homes......Page 1455 Apne Aap Women Worldwide (AAWW)......Page 1456 Right to Legal Protection......Page 1457 Formal Education......Page 1458 Rescue......Page 1459 Psychosocial Counseling......Page 1460 Rescue Operations Through Community Vigilant Group......Page 1461 WISH: Women Initiatives Toward Self-Help......Page 1462 Maiti Nepal......Page 1463 Raksha Nepal......Page 1464 Society for Human Rights and Prisoners´ Aid (SHARP)......Page 1465 The Ansar Burney Trust......Page 1466 ANTAR......Page 1467 ATSEC Action Against Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation of Children, Bangladesh Chapter (ATSEC)......Page 1468 Center for Women and Children Studies (CWCS)......Page 1469 The Human Rights Commission of the Maldives......Page 1470 Conclusion......Page 1471 Websites......Page 1473 84 The NGO Response to Human Trafficking: Challenges, Opportunities, and Constraints......Page 1475 Methodology......Page 1476 Trafficking and the Support Sector: Contracted Provision of Support......Page 1478 Challenges to the Provision of Support Services......Page 1479 The Development of the Trafficking Support Sector over Time......Page 1480 Faith and Support Services for Human Trafficking Victims......Page 1481 Relationship Between Contractual Culture, Government Discourse, Work with Trafficking Victims, and Faith......Page 1484 Conclusion......Page 1486 References......Page 1487 85 The Role of Women´s Nongovernmental Organizations in Bulgaria for More Effective Protection and Assistance to Victims of Hu.........Page 1488 Ensuring the Basis for Services to Victims......Page 1489 Ensuring Coordination, Counseling for Victims Including Legal Counseling Without Delay......Page 1491 Long-Term Psychological and Social Support......Page 1493 Legal Standards and Measures for the Protection of Victims of Trafficking and Realizing Responsibility of Offenders. The Role .........Page 1494 Strasbourg: Complaints......Page 1496 The Judgment......Page 1497 Challenges of Implementation of the Judgment: The Issue of Compensation......Page 1498 Conclusion......Page 1499 86 Working with Parliamentarians, Statutory Authorities, and the NGO Sector: The Role of the Human Trafficking Foundation in I.........Page 1500 The Human Trafficking Foundation: Partnerships and Parliamentarians......Page 1501 The Modern Slavery Act: The End of the Journey?......Page 1502 Section 52: A Duty to Notify......Page 1504 Identification in Local Authorities......Page 1505 Preventative Work and Identification by Police......Page 1506 The HTF´s Work with Local Authorities......Page 1507 SPOC Network......Page 1508 Pan-London Working......Page 1509 Inadequate Support: Day 1 and Day 46......Page 1510 The Trafficking and Survivor Care Standards......Page 1511 Long-Term Support......Page 1512 References......Page 1516 Further Readings......Page 1517 87 How Lifelong Discrimination and Legal Inequality Facilitate Sex Trafficking in Women and Girls......Page 1519 Introduction......Page 1520 How Gender Discrimination in Law and Practice Sets Women and Girls up for Sexual Exploitation......Page 1521 Human Rights and Protection Under the Law......Page 1523 Distinguishing Trafficking, Sexual Exploitation, and Prostitution: The Exploitation Continuum......Page 1528 Abuse of Power......Page 1530 Government Responses to Managing the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others......Page 1531 Conclusion......Page 1533 References......Page 1534 88 ACT Alberta: A Canadian Case Study of a Collaborative and Evidence-Based Approach to Address Human Trafficking......Page 1537 History of ACT Alberta......Page 1538 Strategy I: Cross-Sectoral Collaboration......Page 1540 Challenges to Stakeholder Collaboration......Page 1542 Strategy II: Evidence-Informed Practice......Page 1544 Program Areas: Training and Awareness Raising on Human Trafficking......Page 1546 Coordinating Services for Victims of Human Trafficking......Page 1547 Conclusion......Page 1549 References......Page 1550 89 State-Level Interventions for Human Trafficking: The Advocates for Human Rights......Page 1552 About The Advocates for Human Rights......Page 1553 Human Trafficking in Minnesota......Page 1554 2008 Sex Trafficking Needs Assessment Report......Page 1555 Safe Harbor for Youth......Page 1556 Strategic Plan for Adult Trafficking Victims......Page 1559 Labor Trafficking......Page 1560 Asking the Right Questions......Page 1561 Statewide Labor Trafficking Protocol......Page 1562 Lessons Learned and Next Steps......Page 1564 Federal Statutes......Page 1565 References......Page 1566 Part VIII: Future Issues and Directions in Controlling Human Trafficking......Page 1568 90 The Praxis of Protection: Working with - and Against - Human Trafficking Discourse......Page 1569 A Vantage Point on Human Trafficking and Protection......Page 1570 The Making of a Global Social Problem......Page 1572 Local Perspectives on Social Phenomena Constructed as Human Trafficking......Page 1574 Constructing Victims of Trafficking at Large......Page 1577 Constructing Individual Victims of Trafficking......Page 1579 References......Page 1582 91 Self-Identification of Victimization of Labor Trafficking......Page 1586 Introduction......Page 1587 Explaining Low Self-Identification of Victimization of Labor Exploitation......Page 1589 Two Trajectories to Self-Identification in the Netherlands......Page 1592 Discussion......Page 1594 Cross-References......Page 1597 References......Page 1598 92 How to Effectively Approach and Calculate Restitution for a Victim of Human Trafficking......Page 1600 Growing Focus of Human Trafficking for Forced Labor......Page 1601 Need for a Nuanced Criminal Restitution Calculation Forced Labor......Page 1603 Recovery for Forced Labor Varies Based on Causes of Action Asserted......Page 1605 Restitution Remains the Best Opportunity to Calculate the Value of Forced Labor......Page 1606 Fair Market Value Evaluation Is Not the Best Method of Calculating Restitution......Page 1607 Fair Market Value Computation Allows Trafficker to Benefit from Their Crime......Page 1608 California Penal Code Section 1202.4(q) Provides Equitable Calculations......Page 1609 Cross-References......Page 1610 References......Page 1611 Statutes......Page 1612 Cases......Page 1613 93 The Advent of a Legislation Proscribing Trafficking in India: A Prescriptive Package for Victims of Trafficking or a Mere R.........Page 1614 Introduction......Page 1615 Human Trafficking in South Asia......Page 1616 Toward a Comprehensive Law on Anti-trafficking in India......Page 1619 The Carceral Nature of the Trafficking in Persons Bill......Page 1621 Ambiguity in the Bill´s Language......Page 1623 Failure to Consolidate Existing Laws......Page 1624 Failure to Address Root Causes and the Realities of Migration and Bonded Labor......Page 1625 Toward a Prescriptive Package for Victims of Trafficking......Page 1626 Conclusion......Page 1627 Cross-References......Page 1628 References......Page 1629 94 Corporate Criminal Liability on Human Trafficking......Page 1632 Corporations´ Involvement from Service Providers to Beneficiaries......Page 1633 Human Trafficking, Forced Labor, and Slavery: Conceptual Observations......Page 1634 Different Approaches to Corporate Criminal Liability......Page 1635 Trafficking in Human Beings Both as a Transnational and a Domestic Phenomenon......Page 1636 Trafficking and Exploitation: Criminalization of Use of Services of Victims of Trafficking in Human Beings......Page 1637 Overlapping Elements of Human Trafficking and Exploitation by Forced Labor......Page 1638 Corporate Criminal Liability for Forced Labor and Practices Similar to Slavery: Legal Challenges and Unsolved Questions......Page 1639 Obligations to Establish Corporate Liability, Might It be of Criminal, Civil, or Administrative Nature......Page 1640 Sanctions, Confiscation......Page 1642 Forced Labor or Practices Similar to Slavery: Which Standard Shall Be Applied?......Page 1643 Territorial and/or Extraterritorial Jurisdiction......Page 1645 Preliminary Conclusions......Page 1646 Corporate Criminal and Civil Liability......Page 1647 Cross-References......Page 1648 References......Page 1649 95 Measuring Trafficking in Persons Better: Problems and Prospects......Page 1651 Why Collecting Statistics on Human Trafficking?......Page 1652 The Problems with Official Statistics on Victims of Trafficking......Page 1653 European Victim Statistics Revisited......Page 1655 Global Statistics......Page 1656 Regional Numbers at the Global Level......Page 1657 National Numbers......Page 1658 European Numbers in Focus......Page 1659 Evaluation......Page 1661 Estimating the True Numbers......Page 1662 Evaluation......Page 1663 The Way Ahead: Bespoke Surveys and Multiple Systems Estimation......Page 1665 Discussion......Page 1666 References......Page 1667 96 Using Criminal Routines and Techniques to Predict and Prevent the Sexual Exploitation of Eastern-European Women in Western .........Page 1669 Introduction......Page 1670 Trafficking Routes and Statistics......Page 1671 Organized Criminal Gangs, Digital Technology, and the Trafficking Process......Page 1673 Law Enforcement Agencies´ Responses......Page 1675 Trafficking and Organized Crime Groups......Page 1678 Organized Crime Groups and Organized Crime Networks Modus Operandi......Page 1680 From Theory to Practice......Page 1682 Conclusion......Page 1684 Summary......Page 1685 References......Page 1686 97 Using Law Enforcement Data in Trafficking Research......Page 1689 The Trafficking Evidence Base: Weak Designs, Hard-to-Access Data, and Skews in Focus......Page 1690 Limitations of Law Enforcement Data......Page 1692 Law Enforcement Data: A Goldmine for Trafficking Research......Page 1693 Initial Design and Contact......Page 1695 Understanding Resourcing......Page 1704 Securing Organizational Support......Page 1705 Dealing with Sensitive and Restricted Data......Page 1706 Conclusion......Page 1708 References......Page 1709 98 Combating Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Organ Removal: Lessons Learned from Prosecuting Criminal Cases......Page 1713 Introduction......Page 1714 Case Description......Page 1716 Trafficking in Human Beings for the Purpose of Organ Removal......Page 1717 Challenges to the Investigation and Prosecution......Page 1718 Trafficking in Human Beings for the Purpose of Organ Removal......Page 1720 Legal Framework and Law Enforcement Response......Page 1721 Challenges to Investigation and Prosecution......Page 1722 Discussion: Issues and Directions in Controlling THBOR......Page 1723 References......Page 1726 99 A Transnational Field Approach to the Study of Labor Trafficking......Page 1730 Introduction......Page 1731 Transnational Space......Page 1732 Transnational Organized Crime Networks......Page 1734 Vulnerability Inherent in Migration......Page 1736 Transnational Networks......Page 1737 Conclusion......Page 1739 References......Page 1741 100 Individual Criminal Responsibility Beyond the State: Human Trafficking as Both a Transnational and an International Crime......Page 1743 The Crime of Human Trafficking......Page 1744 National Dimension and Criminality......Page 1745 Cooperation Regimes......Page 1746 International Regimes......Page 1747 The Rome Statute......Page 1748 General Requirements for ICC Jurisdiction......Page 1749 Enslavement......Page 1750 The Kunarac Case......Page 1751 Other Provisions in Article 7 of the Rome Statute......Page 1752 The ``Regionalization´´ of (International) Criminal Justice and the Inclusion of Human Trafficking Within the American, Africa.........Page 1753 The United Nations Security Council and the Crime of Human Trafficking......Page 1757 References......Page 1760 101 Labor Trafficking of Men in the Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Camps of Madre de Dios: A Reflection from the ``Dias.........Page 1763 Introduction......Page 1764 The Dynamics of the Irregular Gold Economy and Labor Trafficking in the MDD Gold Mining Camps: An Overview......Page 1767 Scoping Labor Trafficking......Page 1768 Some Indicators......Page 1769 What Is the Peruvian Government Doing to Fight Human Trafficking?......Page 1771 The Need for New Approaches to Counteract Labor Trafficking: The Theoretical Debate......Page 1772 From the Security Approach to the ``Diaspora Networks Approach´´......Page 1773 References......Page 1777 102 Is It Time to Open a Conversation About a New United Nations Treaty to Fight Human Trafficking That Focuses on Victim Prot.........Page 1781 Introduction......Page 1782 Part 1: The Palermo Protocol......Page 1783 Critique of Aspects of the Transnational Criminal Justice, Crime Control as Deterrent, and Immigration-Led Approaches of the P.........Page 1785 Critique of Limited Victim Protection and Prevention Measures in the Palermo Protocol......Page 1789 Progressing the Human Rights Agenda: Palermo and Beyond......Page 1790 Human Dignity as the Foundation of Any New Treaty......Page 1791 Prevention and Assistance......Page 1793 Conclusion......Page 1794 References......Page 1795 103 Human Trafficking and Migration: Examining the Issues from Gender and Policy Perspectives......Page 1797 Differentiating Human Trafficking and Smuggling of Migrants......Page 1798 Human Trafficking and Migration: The Linkages and Policy Issues......Page 1801 Human Trafficking-Migration Nexus: Gender Issues......Page 1804 Conclusion and Recommendations......Page 1808 References......Page 1809 Index......Page 1812