Advanced Hybrid Powertrains for Commercial Vehicles

Description

Powertrains for commercial vehicles have evolved since the late nineteenth-century invention of the ICE. In the revised second edition of Advanced Hybrid Powertrains for Commercial Vehicles, the authors explore commercial powertrains through history from the ICE through the introduction of the hybrid powertrain in commercial vehicles. Readers are given an understanding of the ICE as well as the classification of commercial vehicle hybrid powertrains, the variety of energy storage systems, fuel-cell hybrid powertrain systems, and commercial vehicle electrification. The authors review the legislation of vehicle emissions and the regulation necessary to promote the production of fuel-efficient vehicles. Cover Table of Contents Preface of the Second Edition Preface of the First Edition Acknowledgments Acknowledgments of the First Edition About the Authors Chapter 1 Introduction of Hybrid Powertrains for Commercial Vehicles 1.1 Introduction 1.2 History of Commercial Vehicles 1.3 Commercial Vehicle Classification 1.3.1 Commercial Vehicle Classification in the US 1.3.2 Commercial Vehicle Classification in Europe 1.3.3 Commercial Vehicle Classification in China 1.4 Energy Consumption of Commercial Vehicles 1.4.1 Energy Demand of Commercial Vehicles 1.4.2 On-Road Heavy-Duty Commercial Vehicles 1.4.3 Medium-Duty Trucks 1.4.4 Transit Buses 1.5 Drivers of the Efficient Powertrain for Commercial Vehicles 1.5.1 Fuel Prices and Energy Security 1.5.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Fuel Economy Regulations 1.5.2.1 Background of Greenhouse Gases 1.5.2.2 CO 2 Emissions by Commercial Vehicles 1.5.2.3 GHG Emission Regulations and Fuel Economy Standards for Commercial Vehicles 1.5.3 Commercial Vehicle Exhaust Emissions 1.5.3.1 On-Road Vehicle Emission Standards 1.5.3.2 Off-Road Vehicles 1.5.3.3 Low-Emissions Zones 1.5.3.4 No-Idling Laws 1.6 Classification of Commercial Vehicle Hybrid Powertrains 1.6.1 Types of Energy Storage 1.6.1.1 Electric Hybrid 1.6.1.2 Hydraulic Hybrid 1.6.1.3 Pneumatic Hybrid 1.6.1.4 Mechanical (Flywheel) Hybrid 1.6.2 Hybrid Architecture 1.6.2.1 Parallel Hybrid 1.6.2.2 Series Hybrid 1.6.2.3 Power-Split Hybrid 1.6.2.4 Plug-In PHEV 1.6.2.5 Range Extender Hybrid Vehicle 1.6.2.6 In-Wheel Motors 1.6.2.7 Dedicated Hybrid Transmission 1.6.3 Hybrid Classification by Function 1.6.3.1 Mild Hybrid 1.6.3.2 Power Assist Hybrid 1.6.3.3 Full Hybrid 1.6.4 Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle 1.6.5 Hybrid Vehicles by Application References Chapter 2 Internal Combustion Engines for Commercial Vehicles 2.1 Requirements of Internal Combustion Engines for Commercial Vehicles 2.1.1 Size and Weight 2.1.2 Performance 2.1.2.1 Fuel Economy 2.1.2.2 Power 2.1.2.3 Torque 2.1.3 Reliability and Durability 2.1.4 Meeting Government Emissions Regulations 2.2 Basics of IC Engines 2.2.1 History of IC Engines for Commercial Vehicles 2.2.2 Basic Operations of IC Engines 2.2.2.1 Intake 2.2.2.2 Compression 2.2.2.3 Power 2.2.2.4 Exhaust 2.2.3 Otto and Diesel Cycles 2.2.4 Atkinson and Miller Cycles 2.3 Major Engine Components and Subsystems 2.3.1 Diesel Fuel Injection System 2.3.2 Turbocharger 2.3.3 EGR System 2.3.4 Engine Electronic Control Module 2.3.5 Exhaust Gas Aftertreatment Systems 2.3.5.1 Diesel Oxidation Catalyst 2.3.5.2 Selective Catalytic Reduction 2.3.5.3 NO x Adsorber Catalyst 2.3.5.4 Diesel Particulate Filter 2.4 Engine Operating Characteristics 2.4.1 Indicated Power 2.4.2 Mechanical Efficiency 2.4.3 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure 2.4.4 Brake Mean Effective Pressure 2.4.5 Specific Fuel Consumption 2.4.6 Torque/Engine Speed Characteristics 2.5 Advanced Engine Technologies 2.5.1 Low-Temperature Combustion 2.5.2 Advanced Boost Technologies 2.5.3 Electric Turbocompounding 2.5.4 Hybrid LNT/SCR Aftertreatment Technologies 2.5.5 VVA Technology for Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines 2.5.6 Summary of Thermal Efficiency Improvement References Chapter 3 Introduction of Clutches and Transmissions for Commercial Vehicles 3.1 Background of Transmissions 3.2 Key Characteristics of Vehicle ­Transmissions 3.2.1 Power Requirement 3.2.2 Matching the Engine and Transmission 3.2.2.1 Transmission Ratio 3.2.2.2 Top Gear Ratio 3.2.2.3 Minimum Gear Ratio 3.2.2.4 Intermediate Gear Ratio 3.2.2.5 Matching Engine and Transmission 3.3 Key Components of Commercial ­Vehicle Drivetrains 3.3.1 Friction Clutch 3.3.2 Torque Converter 3.3.3 Planetary Gear Set 3.3.4 Compound Planetary Gear Sets 3.4 Manual Transmission 3.5 Automated Manual Transmission 3.6 Dual-Clutch Transmission 3.7 Fully Automatic Transmission 3.8 CVTs for Commercial Vehicles 3.8.1 Mechanical CVT 3.8.2 Hydrostatic CVT 3.8.3 Electric CVT 3.8.4 Magnetic CVT 3.9 Characteristics and ­Efficiency of Commercial Vehicle ­Transmissions References Chapter 4 Energy Storage Systems: Battery, Ultracapacitor, Accumulator, and Flywheel 4.1 Energy Storage Systems for Commercial Hybrid Applications 4.1.1 Hybrid Vehicle ESS Operating Requirements 4.2 Electrical Chemical Battery 4.2.1 Fundamentals of Electrochemical Cells 4.2.1.1 Thermodynamic Voltage 4.2.1.2 Battery Capacity 4.2.1.3 Specific Energy and Specific Power 4.2.2 Lead-Acid Battery 4.2.3 Nickel Metal Hydride 4.2.4 Li-Ion Battery 4.2.5 Supercapacitor 4.2.6 Battery/Supercapacitor Hybrid ESSs 4.2.7 Solid-State Battery 4.3 Battery Management Systems 4.3.1 Cell Protection 4.3.2 Battery State of Charge 4.3.2.1 Open-Circuit Voltage (OCV) Method 4.3.2.2 Coulomb Counting Method 4.3.2.3 Adaptive Methods 4.3.3 Cell Balancing 4.3.3.1 Charge Shunting 4.3.3.2 Charge Shuttling 4.3.3.3 Energy Converters 4.3.4 Battery Thermal Management 4.4 Hydraulic Energy Storage 4.4.1 Background of Hydraulic Accumulators 4.4.2 Types of Hydraulic Accumulators 4.4.2.1 Bladder Accumulators 4.4.2.2 Diaphragm Accumulators 4.4.2.3 Piston Accumulators 4.4.2.4 Metal Bellows Accumulators 4.4.3 Application of Hydraulic Accumulators 4.5 Flywheel Energy Storage 4.5.1 Mechanical Flywheels 4.5.2 Electric Flywheels 4.5.3 Applications to Vehicles 4.6 Hydrogen Storage 4.6.1 Compressed Gas 4.6.2 Liquid Hydrogen 4.6.3 Cold/Cryo Compression 4.6.4 Metal–Organic Framework 4.6.5 Interstitial Hydrides 4.6.6 Complex Hydrides 4.6.7 Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers 4.6.8 Chemical Hydrogen References Chapter 5 Hybrid-Electric System Design and Optimization 5.1 Characteristics of Hybrid-Electric Powertrains 5.1.1 User Requirements 5.1.1.1 Economics 5.1.1.2 Performance 5.1.1.3 Auxiliary Features 5.1.2 Driving Cycles 5.2 Hybrid System Architectures 5.2.1 Parallel Hybrid System 5.2.1.1 Parallel Hybrid System Energy Flows 5.2.2 Series Hybrid System 5.2.3 Dual-Mode Hybrid System 5.2.4 Mild Hybrid with Start-Stop, Launch Assist, and Regenerative Braking 5.2.5 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Pre- and Post-transmission 5.2.6 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles 5.2.7 In-Wheel Motor Hybrid Electric Vehicles 5.3 Hybrid System Selection 5.3.1 Electric Motor/Generator Selection 5.3.1.1 Motor/Generator Sizing 5.3.2 Energy Storage System Selection 5.3.2.1 Battery Sizing 5.3.3 Electrical System Voltage 5.3.4 Thermal Management 5.4 Hybrid System Optimization 5.4.1 Static Optimization 5.4.2 Dynamic Programming 5.4.3 Optimization of Hybrid System Configuration and Operation References Chapter 6 Hybrid-Electric Power Conversion Systems 6.1 Basic Three-Phase Motor Theory 6.2 Basic Power Inverter Design and Operation 6.3 Basic Motor/Generator Designs 6.3.1 Induction Motor/Generator 6.3.2 PM Motor/Generator 6.3.3 Switched Reluctance Motor/Generator 6.3.4 Axial Flux Motor/Generator 6.4 Stator Design 6.4.1 Distributed Winding 6.4.2 Concentrated Pole Construction 6.5 Rotor Design 6.5.1 Squirrel Cage Rotor 6.5.2 Wound Rotor 6.5.3 PM Rotor 6.5.3.1 Surface-Mounted PMs 6.5.3.2 Interior-Mounted PM Rotor 6.6 Electric Motor Power Density 6.6.1 Temperature 6.6.2 Copper Losses 6.6.3 Iron Losses 6.6.4 Motor Speed 6.6.5 Cooling 6.7 Electric Motor Characteristics 6.7.1 Power and Torque Characteristics 6.7.2 System Level Voltage 6.7.3 Back EMF 6.7.4 Torque Ripple 6.7.5 Cogging Torque 6.8 Motor Control 6.8.1 Controls in Healthy State 6.8.2 Fault Tolerant Controls References Chapter 7 Hydraulic Hybrid Powertrain System Design 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 The Hydrostatic Transmission 7.1.1.1 Configurations 7.1.1.2 Classification of Hydrostatic Transmissions 7.1.1.3 Operating Characteristics of Hydrostatic Transmissions 7.1.2 Hydrostatic Regenerative Braking 7.1.3 User Requirements 7.2 Hydraulic Hybrid System Architecture 7.2.1 Parallel Hydraulic Hybrid Systems 7.2.2 Series Hydraulic Hybrid Systems 7.2.3 Multimode and Split Power-Flow Hydraulic Hybrid Systems 7.3 Design and Specification of Hydraulic Hybrid Systems 7.3.1 Hydraulic Pumps and Motors 7.3.1.1 Sizing of Pumps and Motors 7.3.1.2 Performance of Pumps and Motors 7.3.2 Hydraulic Accumulators 7.3.2.1 Sizing of Accumulators 7.3.2.2 Performance of Gas Accumulators 7.3.3 Hydraulic Lines and Other Components 7.3.4 Fluid Conditioning 7.3.5 Noise and Vibration 7.4 Examples of Systems at or near ­Production Application 7.4.1 Refuse Collection Vehicles 7.4.2 Package Delivery Vehicles 7.4.3 Multimode Split Power-Flow System in a Warehouse Vehicle References Chapter 8 Hydraulic Components and Controls 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Hydraulic Pumps and Motors 8.2.1 Gear Pumps and Motors 8.2.1.1 External Gear Units 8.2.1.2 Internal Gear Units 8.2.2 Vane Pumps and Motors 8.2.3 Piston Pumps and Motors 8.2.4 Axial Piston Pump/Motors 8.2.4.1 Swash Plate Pump/Motors 8.2.4.2 Bent-Axis Pump/Motors 8.2.5 Radial Piston Pump/Motors 8.2.5.1 Fixed-Capacity Radial Piston Unit with Static Pistons 8.2.5.2 Variable-Displacement Radial Piston Machines 8.2.5.3 Radial Piston Motors with External Cam 8.2.6 Considerations of Pump/Motor Performance and Noise 8.2.6.1 Pump and Motor Efficiency 8.2.6.2 Cavitation 8.2.6.3 Pump Outlet Flow 8.2.6.4 Compressibility Considerations 8.2.6.5 Noise Considerations 8.3 Valves 8.3.1 Automatic Valves 8.3.2 Isolation Valves 8.3.3 Control Valves 8.4 Pipes and Fittings 8.4.1 High-Pressure Lines 8.4.2 Low-Pressure/Return Lines 8.4.3 Hydraulic Fittings 8.5 Hydraulic Oils and Related Systems 8.5.1 Oil Characteristics 8.5.2 Fluid Conditioning 8.5.2.1 Contamination 8.5.2.2 Cleanliness Requirements 8.5.2.3 Filtration 8.5.3 System Thermal Management 8.6 Control Units and Transducers 8.6.1 System Control Units 8.6.2 Transducers References Chapter 9 Fuel-Cell Hybrid Powertrain Systems 9.1 Fuel-Cell Hybrid Powertrain 9.2 Operating Principles of Fuel Cells 9.3 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells for Commercial Vehicles 9.3.1 How the PEM Fuel-Cell Works 9.3.2 PEMFC System for Commercial Vehicles 9.3.3 PEM Fuel Cell Vehicle Performance and Development 9.4 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) and Range Extender 9.4.1 How Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Work 9.4.2 SOFC System for Vehicle Applications 9.4.2.1 SOFC APU 9.4.2.2 Hybrid ICE/SOFC Powertrain 9.4.2.3 SOFC Range Extender Electric Vehicle References Chapter 10 Commercial Vehicle Electrification 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Idle Reduction Technologies 10.2.1 Diesel Auxiliary Power Unit 10.2.2 Fuel Cell APU 10.2.2.1 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell 10.2.2.2 PEM Fuel Cell 10.2.3 Microturbine APU 10.2.4 Truck Stop Electrification 10.3 Electrically Driven Boost System and Other Components 10.3.1 Electrically Driven Turbocharging 10.3.2 Electrically Driven Accessories 10.3.2.1 Coolant Pump and Engine Cooling System 10.3.2.2 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 10.3.2.3 Compressed Air Module 10.3.2.4 Power Steering 10.4 Electrification for Plug-In Hybrid Commercial Vehicles 10.4.1 Flexible Traction Drive System 10.4.2 Flexible High-Voltage System Architecture 10.4.3 Plug-In Hybrid Utility Vehicles 10.5 External Charging and Plug-In Hybrid Commercial Vehicles 10.5.1 Smart Grid 10.5.2 Standards Development 10.5.2.1 Vehicle-to-Grid Standards 10.5.2.2 Home Communications 10.5.2.3 Other Standards under Development 10.5.3 Charging Infrastructure 10.5.3.1 Level I and II Chargers 10.5.3.2 DC Chargers 10.5.3.3 Battery Swapping Stations 10.5.3.4 Electric Highway References Chapter 11 Hybrid Powertrain System Modeling, Simulation, Validation, and Certification 11.1 Model-Based Control System ­Development 11.1.1 PSAT 11.1.2 Dymola 11.1.3 ADVISOR 11.1.4 HIL and MIL 11.1.5 Dynamic Modeling Approach 11.2 Models for Hybrid-Electric ­Powertrains of Commercial Vehicles 11.2.1 Supervisory Powertrain Controller 11.2.2 Driver Model 11.2.3 Powertrain Subsystem Models 11.2.3.1 Internal Combustion Engine 11.2.3.2 Fuel Cell System 11.2.3.3 Electric Motors and Generators 11.2.3.4 Electric Energy Storage System 11.2.4 Transmission Model 11.2.5 Drivetrain and Vehicle Subsystem 11.3 Dynamic Modeling of Hybrid-­Electric Powertrain System 11.3.1 Gear Shifting Schedule 11.3.2 Power Split Control for Parallel Hybrid System 11.3.3 Charge Sustaining Strategy 11.3.4 Intelligent Power Management Using GPS Information 11.3.5 Simulation Results and Performance Evaluation 11.4 System Control and Optimization for Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles 11.4.1 Hydraulic Accumulator 11.4.2 Hydraulic Pump/Motors 11.4.3 Power Management Strategy 11.4.4 Simulation Model and Results 11.5 Model-Based Test and Validation 11.5.1 Dynamometer Test 11.5.2 Road Test 11.6 Hybrid Vehicle Certification 11.6.1 Engine Dynamometer 11.6.2 Chassis Dynamometer 11.6.3 Power Pack Testing 11.6.4 Track Testing 11.6.5 Simulation-Based Certification 11.6.6 Certifications of Commercial Vehicles in the United States 11.6.7 Certification of Hybrid Powertrains for Commercial Vehicles 11.6.8 Safety Design Overview References Chapter 12 Future Powertrain Technologies for Commercial Vehicles 12.1 Introduction 12.1.1 Sustainability and Environment Concerns 12.1.2 Government Regulations 12.1.2.1 USA Regulation 12.1.2.2 European Regulation 12.1.2.3 China Regulation 12.2 Intelligent Transportation System 12.2.1 Vehicle Platooning 12.2.2 Multimodal Transportation 12.2.2.1 Transportation Hubs 12.2.2.2 Dedicated Rights-of-Way 12.2.2.3 Efficient Mode Switching 12.2.2.4 Land-Use 12.2.2.5 Local Feeder Routes 12.2.3 Smart Grid and Communication Infrastructure 12.3 Vehicle Autonomy 12.3.1 History of Vehicle Autonomy 12.3.2 Artificial Intelligence for AD 12.3.3 Architectural Autonomy System 12.3.4 Perception 12.3.4.1 Sensors 12.3.4.1.1 Camera. 12.3.4.1.2 LIDAR. 12.3.4.1.3 Radar. 12.3.4.1.4 Ultrasonic Sensors (SONAR). 12.3.4.2 Sensing Fusion 12.3.5 Planning 12.3.6 Controls 12.3.7 Safety and Security 12.4 Future Powertrain Technologies for Commercial Vehicles 12.4.1 Future Powertrain Technologies 12.4.2 System Solutions and Sustainable Transportation 12.4.2.1 Sustainable Transports for Smart City 12.4.2.2 Sustainable Synergistic Transportation References Index