Fungal Resources for Sustainable Economy: Current Status and Future Perspectives

Description

This edited book provides a comprehensive account of the new developments in various facets of fungal biology related to the impact and application of fungi on the sustainable economy. The book consists of 24 chapters distributed under five sections written by active researchers and academicians from India and abroad. The five sections of the book are- 1. Fungi in Sustainable Economy, 2. Fungal Resources: Current and Potential Industrial Applications, 3. Fungal Resources: Current and Potential Agricultural Applications, 4. Fungi and their Secondary metabolites: Implications and 5. Fungi: Burden to health and Indoor Environment. The book explores the utility of fungi as food, enzymes, organic compounds, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals and agricultural productivity promoter. It also highlights the negative fungal impacts on food production, health and environment. The book is useful to postgraduate students studying mycology, plant pathology, crop protection, agricultural sciences, and plant sciences. In addition, scientists involved in biological and agricultural research, crop management, and various industries that manufacture or utilize fungal products on a small to large scale shall also find the book helpful. Preface Acknowledgments Contents Editors and Contributors Part I: Fungi in Sustainable Economy: An Introduction 1: Impact of Fungi on the World Economy and Its Sustainability: Current Status and Potentials 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Major Challenges to World Economy 1.3 Green Economy, a Sustainable Solution 1.4 Bioeconomy 1.5 Fungi, a Potential Tool of Bioeconomy 1.6 Fungal Impact on World Economy 1.6.1 Positive Implications of Fungi on Economy 1.6.1.1 Health Sector 1.6.1.1.1 Pharmaceuticals 1.6.1.1.2 Medicinal Mushrooms 1.6.1.2 Agricultural Sector 1.6.1.2.1 Biocontrol Agent 1.6.1.2.2 Biofertilizers 1.6.1.3 Food Sector 1.6.1.3.1 Edible Fungi as Direct Food 1.6.1.3.2 Fungi in Food Products 1.6.1.3.3 Beverages 1.6.1.4 Chemical Sector 1.6.1.4.1 Enzymes 1.6.1.4.2 Organic Acids 1.6.1.4.3 Biofuel 1.6.1.4.4 Plastics and Their Biodegradation 1.6.2 Negative Implications of Fungi on Economy 1.6.2.1 Cause of Diseases 1.6.2.2 Food Spoilage and Contamination 1.7 Potentials of Fungi Toward Sustainable World Economy 1.7.1 Food Security 1.7.2 Mycoremediation 1.7.3 Production Hosts for Enzymes 1.7.4 Functional Genomics and Discovery of Novel Anti-infectives 1.8 Conclusion References 2: Sustainable Utilization of Fungal Resources: Applications in Plant and Animal Health 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Utilization of Fungi in Improving Plant Growth and Productivity 2.2.1 Removal of Metal Toxicity from Soil 2.2.1.1 Immobilization of Metals in the Soil by the Glomalin Protein 2.2.1.2 Adsorption of Heavy Metals from the Contaminated Soil by Fungal Structures 2.2.2 Role of AMF in Nutrient Uptake 2.2.2.1 Uptake of Phosphorus 2.2.2.2 Uptake of Zinc 2.2.2.3 Uptake of Iron 2.2.2.4 Uptake of Nitrogen 2.2.3 Fungal Endophytes in Pest and Disease Resistance to Plants 2.2.4 Fungi as Biofertilizers 2.3 Utilization of Fungi in Animal Health 2.3.1 Edible Fungi as a Source of Nutrients 2.3.2 Fungi in Cosmeceuticals 2.3.3 Fungi as Antibacterial Agents 2.3.4 Fungi as Probiotics 2.3.4.1 Probiotics in Animal Feed and Poultry Nutrition 2.3.5 Fungi as a Source of Lipids 2.3.6 Fungi as a Source of Antibiotics 2.3.7 Fungi as a Source of Enzymes 2.3.8 Fungi in Medicine 2.4 Conclusion References Part II: Fungal Resources: Current and Potential Industrial Applications 3: Role and Applications of Fungi in Food and Fermentation Technology 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Characteristics of Fungi 3.3 Classification of Fungi 3.4 Proliferation of Fungi 3.5 Application of Fungi in Food Production 3.5.1 Acid-Fermented Leavened Foods 3.5.2 Fermented Milk Products 3.5.3 Cereal-Based Fermented Foods 3.5.4 Fruit- and Vegetable-Based Alcoholic Beverages 3.5.5 Fermented Soybean Products 3.5.6 Legume-Based Fermented Foods 3.5.7 Tuber Crop-Based Fermented Food 3.5.8 Fermented Fish and Meat Products 3.5.9 Fungal Enzymes 3.5.10 Edible Fungi 3.6 Fungi as Food Spoiler and Mycotoxin Producer 3.7 Conclusions References 4: Fungal Keratinases: Enzymes with Immense Biotechnological Potential 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Keratinolytic Fungi 4.3 Production of Fungal Keratinases 4.4 Purification of Fungal Keratinases 4.5 Biochemical Characterization of Fungal Keratinase 4.6 Structure of Keratinolytic Enzymes 4.6.1 Keratinolytic Protease Structure in S1 Family 4.6.2 Keratinolytic Protease Structure in S8 Family 4.6.3 Keratinolytic Protease Structure in M32 Family 4.7 Mechanism of Action of Fungal Keratinases 4.8 Applications of Fungal Keratinases 4.8.1 Feed and Agroindustry 4.8.2 Leather Industry 4.8.3 Therapeutic Applications 4.8.3.1 Trans-ungual Delivery of Drugs 4.8.3.2 Treatment of Dermatophytosis 4.8.3.3 Prion Decontamination 4.8.3.4 Other Pharmaceutical Applications 4.8.4 Detergent Industry 4.8.5 Textile Industry 4.8.6 Other Prospective Applications 4.8.6.1 Silver Recovery from X-ray Films 4.8.6.2 Biofuels 4.8.6.3 Processing of Edible Bird´s Nests 4.9 Conclusions References 5: Bioprospection of Endophytic Fungi for Extracellular Enzymes 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Relationship Between Endophytes and Host Plants 5.3 Fungal Endophytes and Extracellular Enzyme Production 5.4 Endophytic Fungal Enzymes and Their Applications 5.4.1 Laccase 5.4.2 Protease 5.4.3 Cellulase and Xylanase 5.4.4 Amylase 5.4.5 Lipase 5.5 Conclusion References 6: Potential Antioxidant Enzymes from Fungi and Their Clinical Significance 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Singlet Oxygen or Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) 6.2.1 Generation of ROS 6.2.2 ROS Synthesis in Mitochondria 6.2.3 ROS Synthesis by NADPH Oxidases (NOX) 6.2.4 Other Sources of ROS 6.2.5 Dual Role of ROS 6.2.6 Physiological Role of ROS in Cellular Homeostasis 6.2.7 Pathological Aspects of ROS 6.2.7.1 Role of ROS in the Establishment of Infertility in Males 6.2.7.2 ROS and Infertility in Females 6.2.7.3 Role of ROS in Cancer 6.3 Antioxidants and Detoxification 6.4 Superoxide Dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1) 6.4.1 History of SOD 6.5 Commercially Available SODs 6.6 Different Forms of SODs in Humans and Their Localization and Role 6.6.1 SOD1 (Cu/Zn-SOD) 6.6.2 SOD2 (MnSOD) 6.6.3 SOD3 (Extracellular Cu/ZnSOD and ecSOD) 6.7 Biology of ROS 6.8 Therapeutic Potential and Physiological Importance of SOD 6.8.1 SOD as an Anti-inflammatory Agent 6.8.2 Role of SOD in Cancer Therapy 6.8.3 SOD3 in the Treatment of Arthritis 6.8.4 Role of SOD3 in Diabetic Vascular Disorders 6.8.5 Role of SOD3 in Diabetic Nephropathy 6.8.6 Role of SOD3 in Allergic Conjunctivitis 6.8.7 Role of SOD in Oxidative Stress-Induced Male Infertility 6.9 Clinical Overview of SOD 6.10 Catalase (EC 1.11.1.6) 6.10.1 Catalase Distribution 6.10.2 Therapeutic Potential of Catalase 6.10.2.1 Catalase and Male Fertility 6.10.2.2 Catalase in COVID-19 Treatment 6.10.2.3 Catalase and Longevity 6.10.2.4 Graying of Hair 6.10.2.5 Protection Against Excessive Dietary Fat 6.10.2.6 Catalase Prevents and Reverses Cancer 6.10.2.7 Role of Catalase in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) 6.10.2.8 Diabetes and Blood Catalase Deficiency 6.10.3 Catalase Synthesis in Microorganisms 6.11 Conclusion References 7: Health Benefits of Mushrooms: An Appraisal 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Nutraceutical Components of Mushrooms 7.2.1 Proteins and Amino Acids 7.2.2 Minerals 7.2.3 Vitamins 7.2.4 Mushroom Immunomodulators 7.2.4.1 Polysaccharides (PS) and beta-Glucan 7.2.4.2 Terpenoids 7.2.4.3 Lectins 7.2.4.4 Fungal Immunomodulatory Proteins (FIPs) 7.3 Mushroom Nutraceuticals and Their Biological Activities 7.3.1 Antimicrobial Activity 7.3.2 Antioxidant Activity 7.3.3 Antidiabetic Activity 7.3.4 Cytotoxic Activity 7.3.5 Anti-inflammatory Activities 7.3.6 Neuroprotective Activity 7.3.6.1 Alzheimer´s Disease (AD) 7.3.6.2 Huntington´s Disease (HD) 7.3.7 Enzyme Activity 7.3.7.1 Antioxidant Enzymes 7.3.7.2 Laccase 7.3.7.3 Tyrosinase 7.3.7.4 Lignocellulosic-Degrading Enzymes 7.4 Conclusions References 8: Diversity of Ethnomedicinal Mushrooms from the Western Ghats of India and Their Sustainable Utilization 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Ethnomedicine 8.3 Mushroom Diversity 8.4 Use of Ethnomedicinal Mushrooms 8.4.1 Use of Mushrooms in China 8.5 Diversity and Use of Mushrooms in India 8.5.1 Ayurveda and Mushrooms 8.6 The Western Ghats of India 8.6.1 Diversity of Macrofungi in the Western Ghats 8.6.2 Ethnomedicinal Mushrooms from the Western Ghats 8.7 Some Important Medicinal Mushrooms 8.8 Commercialization of Mushrooms 8.8.1 Ethnomedicinal Mushroom Collection and Utilization 8.9 Conclusion References Part III: Fungal Resources: Current and Potential Agricultural Applications 9: Endophytic Fungi: Application in Combating Plant Pathogens and Sustainable Agriculture 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Diversity and Distribution 9.3 Endophyte-Pathogen: Contact Interactions 9.4 Endophytic Fungi: The Bioactive Secondary Metabolite Synthesizers 9.5 Bioactive Metabolites from Fungal Endophytes: Application in Agriculture 9.6 Improving Biotic and Abiotic Stress Tolerance 9.7 Insecticidal Activity 9.8 Nematicidal Activity 9.9 Conclusion References 10: Benefits and Potential of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) in Vegetable Crop Production 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Insights into Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) 10.2.1 Classification of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi 10.2.2 Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi 10.3 Successful Use of AMF with Vegetable Crops 10.3.1 Seedling Establishment and Growth 10.3.2 Enhanced Nutrient Acquisition 10.3.3 Reduction in Fertilizer Input 10.3.4 Production of Secondary Metabolites 10.3.5 Increased Fruit Yield 10.3.6 AMF Facilitates Survival Under Extreme Environmental Stresses 10.3.7 Protection Against Abiotic Stresses 10.3.8 Protection Against Biotic Stresses 10.4 AMF Interactions 10.4.1 AMF Interaction with Soil Amendments 10.4.2 AMF Synergistic Interaction with Beneficial Microbes 10.4.3 AMF Interaction with Non-Mycorrhizal Vegetable Crops 10.5 Inoculum Production of AMF 10.6 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 10.7 Recommendations References 11: Arbuscular Mycorrhiza Fungi Resources for Sustainable and Climate-Smart Cultivation of Maize 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Future of Maize Cultivation Amid the Global Climate Change 11.3 Role of AMF in Climate-Smart Cultivation of Maize 11.3.1 Role of AMF in Temperature-Related Climate Stress 11.3.2 Water Stress and AMF 11.3.3 Tolerance Against Pathogens in Maize with AMF 11.4 AMF Resources for Maize: Diversity and Databases 11.5 Limitations and Future Directions References 12: Role of Endophytic Fungi in Promoting Plant Health 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Endophytic Fungi as a Producer of Putative Phytochemicals 12.3 Endophytic Fungi and Phytohormone Production 12.4 Endophytic Fungi Consortia as Bio-Inoculant 12.5 Conclusion References 13: Fungal Biocontrol Agents: A Sustainable Management Option for Soybean Diseases 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Major Diseases of Soybean 13.2.1 Pod Blight of Soybean 13.2.2 Rust 13.2.3 Rhizoctonia Aerial Blight 13.2.4 Phytophthora and Pythium Seed Rot 13.2.5 Charcoal Rot 13.3 Fungal Biocontrol Agents 13.4 Mechanism of Biocontrol of Plant Diseases 13.4.1 Attachment to Pathogen Surfaces 13.4.2 Mycoparasitism 13.4.3 Lytic Enzymes 13.4.4 Antibiotics 13.4.5 Suppression by Other by-Products 13.4.6 Competition 13.5 Microbial Diversity of Soybean and Disease Suppression 13.6 Soybean Beneficial Microbes and Pathogen Interaction 13.7 Management of some of the Major Diseases of Soybean Using Fungal Biocontrol Agents 13.7.1 Pod Blight 13.7.2 Rust 13.7.3 Rhizoctonia Aerial Blight 13.7.4 Pythium Seed Rot 13.7.5 Charcoal Rot 13.7.6 Future Research Needs in Sustainable Management of Soybean Diseases in India 13.8 Conclusions 13.9 Future Prospects References 14: Advances in Formulations and Efficacy of Mycopesticides for Plant Disease Management and Sustainable Yields 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Mycopesticides 14.3 Formulations of Mycopesticides 14.3.1 Categories of Bioformulations 14.3.1.1 Solid Formulation 14.3.1.2 Liquid Formulations 14.3.2 Novel Formulations 14.3.2.1 Encapsulation 14.3.2.2 Tablet Formulation 14.3.2.3 Microemulsions 14.3.2.4 Oil Water Emulsion/Oil Dispersion 14.3.2.5 Nanoformulation 14.4 Carriers and Adjuvants Used in Mycopesticide Formulations 14.5 Role of Mycopesticides and Their Formulations in Crop Disease Management 14.6 Constraints 14.7 Prospects 14.8 Conclusion References Part IV: Fungi and Their Secondary Metabolites: Implications 15: Recent Advances in Fungal Secondary Metabolites and Their Applications 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Functions and Types of Fungal Secondary Metabolites (FSMs) 15.2.1 Terpenes 15.2.2 Polyketides 15.2.3 Indole Alkaloids 15.2.4 Nonribosomal Peptides 15.3 Plant-Fungi Secondary Metabolites Interaction and Antifungal Activity 15.3.1 Secondary Metabolites with Antifungal Activity 15.3.2 Secondary Metabolites of Phytopathogenic Fungi 15.3.3 Phytotoxin Effects on Host Plant 15.3.4 Endophyte Secondary Metabolites 15.4 Mechanism of Action of Antifungal Compounds 15.5 Genomic and Proteomic Regulation of Fungal Secondary Metabolites 15.5.1 Stimuli in Fungal Secondary Metabolite Production 15.5.2 Genomic Correlation of Secondary Metabolites 15.5.3 Transcription Factors 15.5.4 Role of Epigenetics 15.6 Applications of Fungal Secondary Metabolites 15.6.1 Biotechnological Applications 15.6.2 Industrial Applications 15.6.3 Medical Applications 15.6.4 Agricultural Applications 15.7 Conclusion and Future Perspective References 16: The Biological Implications of Fungi as Agents of Mycotoxigenicity and Potential Therapeutics in Medicine 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Fungal Pathogens on Human Health 16.3 Fungal Infections in Animals 16.4 Mycotoxins 16.4.1 Aflatoxins 16.4.2 Citrinins 16.4.3 Ochratoxin A 16.4.4 Fumonisins 16.4.5 Gliotoxins 16.4.6 Ergot Alkaloids 16.4.7 Other Mycotoxins 16.5 Mycotoxin Management Strategies 16.5.1 Challenges in Mycotoxin Management 16.5.2 Pre- and Post-harvest Preventive Strategies 16.5.3 Good Agricultural Practices 16.5.4 Pre-harvest Biological Control Methods 16.5.5 Decontamination of Mycotoxins 16.5.5.1 Physical Methods 16.5.5.2 Chemical Methods 16.5.5.3 Biological Methods 16.5.5.4 Innovative Techniques 16.6 Fungi-Derived Therapeutics in Medicine 16.6.1 Challenges in Drug Development 16.6.2 Infectious Diseases 16.6.2.1 Antibacterial Drugs 16.6.2.2 Antifungal Drugs 16.6.2.3 Antivirals 16.6.3 Noncommunicable Illnesses 16.6.3.1 Immunomodulatory Drugs 16.6.3.2 Cholesterol-Lowering Agents 16.6.3.3 Anticancer Drugs and Biomolecules 16.7 Conclusions References 17: A Potential Source of Medicines from Fungi: An Overview of Biologically Active Secondary Metabolites 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Secondary Metabolites from Fungi 17.2.1 Isolation and Characterization of Secondary Metabolites from Fungi 17.2.2 Types of Fungi Based on Their Ecosystem 17.2.2.1 Endophytic Fungi 17.2.2.2 Marine Fungi 17.2.2.3 Epiphytic Fungi 17.2.2.4 Mushrooms 17.2.3 Plant-Fungal Interaction for the Production of Secondary Metabolites 17.3 Antimicrobial Activity 17.4 Anticancer Activity 17.5 Antidiabetic Activity 17.6 Antioxidant Activity 17.7 Other Biological Activities 17.8 Conclusion References 18: Mycotoxins: Structure, Biosynthesis, Health Effects, and Their Biological Detoxification 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Mycotoxins 18.2.1 Aflatoxins 18.2.2 Ochratoxins (OTA) 18.2.3 Citrinin 18.2.4 Patulin 18.2.5 Zearalenone (ZEN/ZEA) 18.2.6 Zearalenol (ZOL) 18.2.7 Fumonisins (FBs) 18.2.8 Trichothecenes 18.2.8.1 T-2 Toxin 18.2.8.2 Deoxynivalenol (DON) 18.3 Biological Detoxification of Mycotoxins 18.3.1 Aflatoxins 18.3.2 OTA 18.3.3 Patulin 18.3.4 Zearalenone 18.3.5 Deoxynivalenol 18.3.6 FB1 18.4 Conclusion References 19: Mycotoxins: Detection Methods and Strategies for Management 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Detection of Mycotoxins 19.3 Chromatographic Techniques 19.3.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography 19.3.2 High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) 19.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 19.5 Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) 19.6 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry 19.7 Capillary Electrophoresis 19.8 Serological or Immunological Methods 19.8.1 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) 19.8.2 Lateral Flow Test 19.8.3 Fluorescence Polarization Immunoassays (FPI) 19.8.4 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 19.8.5 Radioimmunoassay (RIA) 19.9 Biological Methods 19.9.1 Sensor Technology 19.9.2 Biosensors 19.9.3 Signal Amplification Method 19.10 Management Strategies to Prevent Contamination of Food and Feed 19.10.1 Prevention of Mold or Fungus Growth in Crops and Other Feedstuffs 19.10.2 Pre-Harvesting Strategies 19.10.3 Post-Harvesting Strategies 19.11 Detoxification of Mycotoxin-Contaminated Feeds/Foods 19.11.1 Novel Detoxification Strategies for Mycotoxin-Contaminated Feed and Food Items 19.11.1.1 Plant Extracts (Essential Oils) 19.11.1.2 Magnetic Materials and Nanoparticles 19.11.1.3 Other Innovative Methods for Detoxification of Mycotoxins 19.12 Continuous Surveillance of Mycotoxins in Crops, Food, and Feed Items 19.13 Conclusions and Future Prospects References 20: Mycotoxins as Food and Feed Contaminant: Effect on Health and Economy and Their Management 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Types of Mycotoxins 20.2.1 Aflatoxins 20.2.2 Ochratoxins (OT) 20.2.3 Zearalenone (ZEA) 20.2.4 Fumonisins 20.2.5 Trichothecenes 20.2.6 Citrinins (CIT) 20.2.7 Patulins (PAT) 20.3 Mycotoxins Regulations 20.4 Mycotoxins Exposure 20.5 Health Concerns 20.5.1 Effect of Mycotoxins on Human Health 20.5.2 Effect of Mycotoxin on Gut Microbiota 20.5.3 Effect of Mycotoxin on Animal Health 20.5.4 Mycotoxicoses in Pets 20.5.5 Effect of Mycotoxins on Non-ruminant Animal Health 20.5.6 Effect of Mycotoxins on Ruminant Animal Health 20.6 Economic Losses 20.7 Mycotoxins Analysis 20.7.1 Rapid Methods of Analysis for Mycotoxins 20.7.2 New Technologies for Mycotoxin Detection and Measurement 20.8 Mycotoxin Control 20.8.1 Pre-harvest Treatments 20.8.2 Post-harvest Treatments 20.8.2.1 Physical Treatments 20.8.2.2 Chemical Treatments 20.8.2.3 Biocontrol Treatments 20.9 Conclusion References 21: Aflatoxins: Occurrence, Biosynthesis Pathway, Management, and Impact on Health 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Structure and Properties of Aflatoxins 21.3 Aflatoxins Occurrence 21.3.1 Food and Feed 21.3.2 Herbal Medicines 21.3.3 Biological Samples 21.4 Toxicity 21.5 Biosynthesis of Aflatoxin 21.6 Factors Affecting Aflatoxin Production 21.6.1 Nutritional Factors 21.6.1.1 Role of Carbon Sources 21.6.1.2 Role of Nitrogen Sources 21.6.1.3 Role of Lipoperoxidation 21.6.1.4 Role of Trace Metals 21.6.1.5 Role of Phosphates 21.6.1.6 Environmental and Physiological Factors 21.7 Degradation Methods 21.7.1 Physical Method 21.7.2 Chemical Methods 21.7.3 Biological Methods 21.7.3.1 Microbial Degradation 21.7.3.2 Enzymatic Degradation 21.7.3.3 Phytochemicals 21.7.3.3.1 Quercetin 21.7.3.3.2 Gallic Acid 21.7.3.3.3 Trans-cinnamic Acid (CA) and Ferulic acid (FA) 21.7.3.3.4 Carvacrol (CR) and Trans-cinnamaldehyde (TC) 21.7.3.3.5 Essential Oils of Turmeric 21.7.3.3.6 Coumarin 21.7.3.3.7 2-Phenylethanol (2-PE) 21.8 Detection of Aflatoxin 21.8.1 Chromatography Techniques 21.8.2 Thin-Layer Chromatography 21.8.3 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 21.8.4 Gas Chromatography 21.9 Spectroscopic Method 21.9.1 Fluorescence Spectrophotometry 21.9.2 Radioimmunoassay (RIA) 21.9.3 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) 21.10 Conclusion References Part V: Fungi: Burden to Health and Indoor Environment 22: Fungi Impacting Human Health 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Common Fungal Diseases of the Human Body 22.2.1 Skin, Hair, and Nails 22.2.2 Mucous Membranes and Eyes 22.2.3 Lungs and Other Invasive Infections 22.3 Diagnostic Tests for Fungal Infections 22.4 Treatments for Fungal Infections 22.4.1 Antifungal Drugs 22.4.2 Vaccine Development 22.5 Positive Fungal Implications on Human Health 22.5.1 Edible Fungi 22.5.2 Pharmaceutical Applications of Fungi 22.6 Conclusions References 23: Neglected Canine Fungal Zoonoses: Emerging Threats, Diagnostics, and Public Health 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Dermatophytosis 23.3 Disseminated Coccidioidomycosis in Dogs 23.4 Otitis Externa in Dogs 23.5 Malassezia Dermatitis in Canines 23.5.1 Cultural Detection of Malassezia Using Tape Strip Technique 23.5.2 Molecular Detection of Malassezia Using Tailored Methodology 23.5.2.1 DNA Extraction from the Clinical Samples 23.5.2.2 Thermocycler Conditions for DNA Amplification by PCR 23.5.3 Results and Discussion 23.6 Challenges and Solutions of Fungal Infections in Humans 23.7 Conclusions References 24: Impact of Fungi on Indoor Air Quality: Health Hazards and Management Strategies 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Fungi Causing Indoor Pollution and Factors Affecting Their Colonization 24.3 The Health Hazards of Indoor Fungi 24.3.1 Respiratory Problems 24.3.2 Hypersensitivity Syndrome 24.3.3 Immune Disorders 24.3.4 Allergies 24.3.5 Neuropsychiatric Problems 24.4 Fungal Constituents Causing Indoor Pollution 24.4.1 Volatile Fungal Metabolites (VFM) 24.4.2 (1-3)-beta-D Glucan 24.4.3 Ergosterol 24.4.4 Mycotoxins 24.5 Quantitation and Sampling Methods of Indoor Pollution Causing Fungi 24.6 Management Strategies 24.6.1 Physiochemical Methods for Purification of Indoor Pollution 24.6.2 Biotechnological Methods for Purification of Indoor Pollution 24.7 Conclusion References