Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria: Sustainable Growth of Non-legumes

Description

This book covers aspects of biological nitrogen fixation along with the unique signaling and interaction between the diazotrophic bacteria and plants, especially the non-legumes. Nitrogen is the most important growth-limiting nutrient in the ecosystems and biological nitrogen fixation involving microbial symbionts, mainly rhizobia and legumes holds enormous interest across the globe. However, free-living rhizobacteria of non-legumes especially cereals, also establish themselves within the root system, fixing nitrogen and contributing to plant productivity, soil fertility, and agricultural sustainability. These non-symbiotic nitrogen fixers additionally exhibit various plant growth-promoting traits elevating productivity, fortifying nutrient content, and managing water stress in plants. The recent perspectives highlighting the mechanisms and background of non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation provide answers to unravel the potential of nitrogenase and various spectra of habitats of rhizobia and other diazotrophic bacteria. Further, the application of genetic engineering and the development of nitrogen-fixing cereals can provide a possible solution to the problem of food shortage. The book includes various scientific inputs providing comprehensive knowledge about the emergence of agricultural sustainability through nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The book illustrates the systematic mechanisms involved in biological nitrogen fixation through various illustrations, schematic drawings, and flow charts aiding in better understanding. The chapters elaborate on the physiology and metabolism of plant-bacteria interaction in different crops under diverse environmental conditions. Thus, the volume will provide a holistic scenario helping in advancing the novel plant-microbe interactions, cell-signaling, and plant-molecular interactions. The book will assist the agronomists, microbiologists, ecologists, plant pathologists, molecular biologists, environmentalists, policymakers, conservationists, and NGOs to develop biofertilizers and bioinoculants using various genera of microbes and contribute to the targets of sustainable goals in an eco-friendly manner. Preface Contents About the Series Editor and About the Editors and Contributors Chapter 1: Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Nonlegumes: Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Ecological Perspectives of Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF) 1.3 Playbacks of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria (NFB) 1.4 Biofertilizer: A Step Toward Sustainable Development Goals 1.5 Conclusions References Part I: Biological Nitrogen Fixation: Trends and Prospects Chapter 2: Symbiotic and Asymbiotic Nitrogen Fixation: An Overview 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Involvement of Nod Factor in Bacteria-Plant Symbiosis 2.3 Biochemistry of Nitrogen Fixation 2.4 Expression and Maturation of FeMo Nitrogenase 2.5 Nitrogenase and Its Regulation 2.6 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Interactions of Rhizobia with Nonleguminous Plants: A Molecular Ecology Perspective for Enhanced Plant Growth 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Rhizobia and Nonlegume Interaction 3.2.1 Molecular Interaction of Rhizobia in Nonlegumes 3.3 Methods to Detect N2 Fixation by Rhizobia in Nonlegumes 3.4 Genomic Attributes of Rhizobia Colonizing Nonlegumes 3.5 Mechanisms of Growth Promotion of Nonlegumes by Rhizobia 3.5.1 Direct Mechanisms 3.5.1.1 Production of Important Compounds 3.5.1.2 Production of Enzymes 3.5.1.3 Production of Siderophore 3.5.1.4 Solubilization and Uptake of Nutrients 3.5.1.5 Amelioration of Different Plant-Stress Conditions 3.5.2 Indirect Mechanism 3.5.2.1 Biocontrol 3.5.2.2 Change in Host Susceptibility 3.5.2.3 Microbe-Microbe Interaction 3.5.2.4 Increase of Root Adhering Soil 3.6 Nitrogen Fixation in Nonlegumes 3.7 Application of Rhizobia with Nonlegumes 3.7.1 Rice (Oryza sativa) 3.7.2 Wheat (Triticum aestivum) 3.7.3 Maize (Zea mays L.) 3.7.4 Other Crops 3.8 Rhizobial Bioengineering 3.9 Challenges and Limitations 3.9.1 Limitation in Field Application 3.9.2 Selection and Characterization 3.9.3 Limitations in Commercialization 3.10 Rhizobia and Omics Technologies 3.11 Rhizobium in Microbiome of Nonlegumes 3.12 Conclusion and Future Aspect References Chapter 4: Biotechnological Solutions to Improve Nitrogenous Nutrition in Nonlegume Crops 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Types of Biological Nitrogen Fixers 4.2.1 Free-Living Diazotrophs 4.2.2 Associative Diazotrophs 4.2.3 Symbiotic Diazotrophs 4.3 Nitrogenase Enzyme Complex 4.4 Biotechnological Approaches to Develop Nitrogen-Fixing Nonlegumes 4.4.1 Engineering Nitrogenase to Function in Nonlegume Cells 4.4.2 Engineering the Legume Symbiosis into Nonlegumes 4.4.3 Engineering Nonlegumes to Associate with N2-fixing Bacteria and/or Other PGPB 4.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects References Chapter 5: Contribution of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria in Rice Cultivation: Past, Present, and Future 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Nitrogen as a Nutrient for Rice 5.3 Detrimental Consequences Associated with Nitrogen Fertilizers 5.4 Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase 5.5 Major Groups of Nitrogen Fixers 5.5.1 Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixers 5.5.1.1 Regulation of Root Nodule Formation 5.5.1.2 Nitrogenase Enzyme and Associated Genes 5.5.1.3 Prevention of Oxygen Damage of Nitrogenase 5.5.2 Non-symbiotic Nitrogen Fixers 5.6 History and Early Evidences of Possible Nitrogen Fixation in Non-legumes 5.7 Use of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria for Rice Cultivation 5.7.1 Use of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria for Rice Cultivation in the Past (1970-2000) 5.7.1.1 Dream Project of BNF in Rice 5.7.2 Current Developments (2000-2021) 5.7.2.1 Nitrogen-Fixing Biofertilizers with Improved Efficiency 5.7.2.2 Focus of Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation on Nitrogen-Fixing Non-legumes 5.8 Future Directions 5.9 Conclusions References Chapter 6: Nitrogen-Fixing Archaea and Sustainable Agriculture 6.1 Introduction 6.2 General Information About Archaea 6.3 Archaea as Plant Growth Promotors 6.3.1 Nitrogen Fixation by Archaea 6.4 The Diversity of Archaea in the Rhizosphere Region 6.5 Future Prospective 6.6 Conclusions References Part II: Plant Growth Promotion: Exploring Benefits Chapter 7: Root Nodule Bacteria-Rhizobia: Exploring the Beneficial Effects on Non-legume Plant Growth 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Plant Growth Promotion Rhizobial Traits 7.3 Potential of Rhizobia to Promote the Growth of Different Non-legumes 7.3.1 Rhizobia: Rice, Wheat and Barley 7.3.2 Maize 7.3.3 Lettuce and Spinach 7.3.4 Vegetables 7.3.5 Other Non-legumes 7.3.6 Promotion of Non-legumes Growth Under Unfavourable Conditions 7.3.7 Crop Rotation 7.4 Role of Rhizobia in the Biocontrol of Non-legume Phytopathogens 7.4.1 Production of Secondary Metabolites and Lytic Enzymes 7.4.2 Siderophores Production 7.4.3 Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) Production 7.4.4 Suppression of Fungal Pathogens of Non-legumes by Rhizobia 7.4.5 Suppression of Nematodes in Non-legumes by Rhizobia 7.5 Interactions Between Rhizobia and Non-legume Plants 7.5.1 Rhizobia and Non-legumes Association Development 7.6 Future Prospects of Rhizobial Inoculant Formulation 7.7 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 8: Interactions of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria and Cereal Crops: An Important Dimension 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Plant Growth: Direct Mechanisms 8.2.1 Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF) 8.2.2 Phytohormones Production 8.2.3 Lumichrome 8.2.4 Riboflavin 8.2.5 Ethylene Regulation 8.2.6 Siderophore Production 8.2.7 Stress Tolerance 8.3 Plant Growth: Indirect Mechanisms 8.3.1 Biological Control 8.3.2 Disease Resistance 8.3.3 Interaction of Rhizobia with Other PGPR 8.3.4 Altering Root Adherence 8.4 Role of Rhizobia in Improving Productivity of Cereals 8.4.1 Wheat 8.4.2 Maize 8.4.3 Rice 8.4.4 Barley 8.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 9: Microbiome to the Rescue: Nitrogen Cycling and Fixation in Non-legumes 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Nitrogen Cycling in the Rhizosphere of Non-legumes 9.2.1 Biological Nitrogen Fixation 9.2.2 Nitrification 9.2.3 Denitrification 9.2.4 Assimilatory Nitrate Reduction 9.2.5 Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction to Ammonia (DNRA) 9.3 Effect of Soil Fertilization on Microbiota 9.4 Root Exudates as Modulators of Microbes in Rhizosphere 9.5 Strategies for Incorporating Microbiomes with Net N Benefit in Cereals 9.6 Conclusions References Chapter 10: Biological Nitrogen Fixation in the Rhizosphere of Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) and Coffee (Coffea spp.) and its Rol... 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Biological Nitrogen Fixation 10.2.1 Endosymbiotic Nitrogen-Fixation 10.2.2 Endophytic Nitrogen-Fixation 10.2.3 Associative Nitrogen-Fixation 10.3 Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Sustainable Agriculture 10.4 Characteristics of Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) and Coffee (Coffea spp.) Plants 10.5 Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) and Coffee (Coffea spp.) 10.5.1 Nitrogen Transfer from N2-Fixing Plants to Cacao and Coffee Plants 10.5.2 Nitrogen Fixation by Rhizospheric Microorganisms in Cacao and Coffee 10.6 Challenges in Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Coffee and Cacao Areas 10.7 Conclusions References Chapter 11: Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria and Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria: Sustainability of Non-legume Crops 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Factors Affecting Plant Growth Promotion 11.3 Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria and Plant Processes 11.3.1 Auxins 11.3.2 Abscisic Acid 11.3.3 Cytokinins 11.3.4 Gibberellins 11.3.5 Ethylene 11.3.6 Polyamines 11.4 Linkage Among Non-legumes, Nitrogen and Soil Microbiota 11.4.1 Diazotrophic Microorganisms and Biological N-Fixation Capacity 11.4.2 Interaction of Plant-Soil-Microbes and Environment 11.4.2.1 Interaction Between Agricultural Practices and Microbiomes 11.4.2.2 Environmental Factors 11.5 Rhizospheric Nitrogen Fixation in Non-legume Plants 11.6 Inoculation with Bacteria in Non-legumes: Plant Nutrition, Yield and Fertilization Efficiency 11.6.1 Cereals 11.6.2 Oilseed Crops 11.6.3 Vegetables and Fruits 11.6.4 Forage Grasses 11.6.5 Other Crops 11.7 Benefits of Co-Inoculation of Plant Growth Bacteria in Non-legumes 11.7.1 Maize 11.7.2 Wheat 11.7.3 Rice 11.7.4 Sugarcane 11.7.5 Pastures 11.8 Final Considerations 11.9 Future Prospective References Chapter 12: Harnessing Cereal-Rhizobial Interactions for Plant Growth Promotion and Sustainable Crop Production 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Rhizobium and Non-legume Interaction 12.3 Root Colonization and Nodule Formation of Rhizobium in Nonlegume Plants 12.4 Nitrogen Fixation in Nonlegumes 12.5 Plant Growth Enhancement: Mode of Action 12.5.1 Direct Growth Promotion in Plants 12.5.1.1 Plant Growth Hormone Production 12.5.1.2 Phosphate Solubilization 12.5.1.3 Siderophore Production 12.5.1.4 ACC Deaminase 12.5.2 Indirect Growth Promotion in Plants 12.5.2.1 Biocontrol Activity 12.6 PGPR Effects on Abiotic and Biotic Stress 12.7 Conclusion References Part III: Application to Sustainable Agriculture Chapter 13: Ecology of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria for Sustainable Development of Non-legume Crops 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Genetic Engineering in Non-legumes for Root Nodule Development 13.3 Rhizobia and Non-legume Interactions 13.3.1 Mode of Entry 13.4 Associative and Endophytic Nitrogen Fixation in Wheat, Rice, Maize and Other Crops 13.5 Functional Molecules of N-Fixing Bacteria and PGPR 13.6 Importance of PGPR/Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria as Biofertilizer 13.7 Constraints, Challenges and Future 13.8 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Role of Bacterial Secondary Metabolites in Modulating Nitrogen-Fixation in Non-legume Plants 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Diversity of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria 14.3 Diversity of Non-legume Plants 14.4 Signal Cross-Talk for Synergetic Symbiosis 14.5 Mechanism of Symbiosis 14.6 Abiotic and Biotic Factor Effects on the N-Fixation in Non-legumes 14.7 Effects of N-Fixing Bacteria on Amount of Nitrogen-Fixed in Non-legumes 14.8 Conclusion 14.9 Future Perspectives References Chapter 15: Progress of N2 Fixation by Rice-Rhizobium Association 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Nitrogen in Rice 15.3 Nitrogen Fixation in Rice 15.4 Beneficial Effects of Rhizobium on Rice 15.5 Mechanism of Beneficial Effects 15.5.1 Colonization of Rhizobia on Rice Roots 15.5.2 N2 Fixation of N2 by Rhizobium 15.5.3 Bioremediation of Toxic Elements 15.5.4 Enhanced Uptake of Nutrients 15.5.5 Enhanced Uptake of Fe 15.5.6 Enhanced Total Dry Matter 15.5.7 Enhanced Tolerance of Abiotic Stress 15.5.8 Nodulation Process 15.5.9 Genetic Regulation of N2 Fixation by Rhizobia 15.6 Conclusions and Future Perspective References Chapter 16: N-Fixation by Free-Living and Endophytic Bacteria and Their Impact on Field Crops with Emphasis on Rice 16.1 Nitrogen (N) and Crops 16.2 N-Fixation in Paddy Fields 16.2.1 N-Fertility and N-Balance in Paddy Fields 16.2.2 N-Fixation in Soil and Water in Paddy Fields 16.2.3 Effect of Organic Matter 16.2.4 Seasonal and Diurnal Change 16.2.5 Effect of N, P, and Trace Elements in Soil 16.2.6 Effects of Redox Potential and Other Soil Environments 16.2.7 Influence of Rice Genotypes 16.3 Microflora Contributing to N-Fixation in Paddy Fields 16.3.1 Layered Dynamics of Bacterial Flora in Paddy Soil 16.3.2 N-Fixing Microflora in Paddy Soil 16.4 N-Fixation by Endophytes in Rice 16.4.1 N-Fixing Endophytes in Non-leguminous Crops and Rice 16.4.2 Bacterial Flora of N-Fixing Endophytes 16.4.3 Growth-Promoting Effects by N-Fixing Endophyte 16.4.4 Utilization of N Fixed by Free-Living and Endophytic Diazotrophs by Plants 16.4.5 Ecology of N-Fixing Endophytes in Soil Ecosystem 16.4.6 Endophyte and Plant Interaction 16.5 Research Issues on Sustainable Rice Production and N-Fixation 16.5.1 Metabolic Functions of Microbial Community 16.5.2 Utilization of N-Fixation and C Flow in Rice Culture 16.6 Conclusions References Part IV: Future and Significance Chapter 17: Conclusions: The Rhizobial Eminence for Biological Nitrogen Fixation-Revisited and Refined References Index