Quantum Blockchain: An Emerging Cryptographic Paradigm

Description

QUANTUM BLOCKCHAIN While addressing the security challenges and threats in blockchain, this book is also an introduction to quantum cryptography for engineering researchers and students in the realm of information security. Quantum cryptography is the science of exploiting quantum mechanical properties to perform cryptographic tasks. By utilizing unique quantum features of nature, quantum cryptography methods offer everlasting security. The applicability of quantum cryptography is explored in this book. It describes the state-of-the-art of quantum blockchain techniques and sketches how they can be implemented in standard communication infrastructure. Highlighting a wide range of topics such as quantum cryptography, quantum blockchain, post-quantum blockchain, and quantum blockchain in Industry 4.0, this book also provides the future research directions of quantum blockchain in terms of quantum resilience, data management, privacy issues, sustainability, scalability, and quantum blockchain interoperability. Above all, it explains the mathematical ideas that underpin the methods of post-quantum cryptography security. Readers will find in this book a comprehensiveness of the subject including: The key principles of quantum computation that solve the factoring issue. A discussion of a variety of potential post-quantum public-key encryption and digital signature techniques.Explanations of quantum blockchain in cybersecurity, healthcare, and Industry 4.0. Audience The book is for security analysts, data scientists, vulnerability analysts, professionals, academicians, researchers, industrialists, and students working in the fields of (quantum) blockchain, cybersecurity, cryptography, and artificial intelligence with regard to smart cities and Internet of Things. Cover Half-Title Page Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Contents Preface 1 Introduction to Classical Cryptography 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Substitution Ciphers 1.2.1 Caesar Cipher 1.2.2 Polyalphabetic Cipher 1.2.2.1 Working of Polyalphabetic Cipher 1.2.2.2 Cracking of Cipher Text 1.2.3 Hill Cipher 1.2.4 Playfair Cipher 1.2.4.1 Rules for Encrypting the Playfair Cipher 1.3 Transposition Cipher 1.3.1 Columnar Transposition 1.3.2 Rail Fence Transposition 1.3.3 Route Cipher 1.3.4 Double Transposition 1.4 Symmetric Encryption Technique 1.4.1 Key Management 1.4.2 Key Generation 1.4.3 Key Exchange 1.4.4 Data Encryption Standard 1.4.4.1 Structure of DES 1.4.4.2 Fiestel Function 1.4.5 Advanced Encryption Standard 1.4.5.1 Operation in AES 1.4.6 Applications of Symmetric Cipher 1.4.7 Drawback of Symmetric Encryption 1.4.7.1 Key Exhaustion 1.4.7.2 Key Management at Large Scale 1.4.7.3 Attribution Data 1.5 Asymmetric Encryption Technique 1.5.1 Rivest-Shamir-Adleman Encryption Algorithm 1.5.2 Elliptic Curve Cryptography 1.5.2.1 Elliptic Curve 1.5.2.2 Difference Between ECC and RSA 1.5.2.3 Advantages and Security of ECC 1.5.3 Hyperelliptic Curve Cryptography 1.6 Digital Signatures 1.6.1 Working of Digital Signature 1.6.2 Creation of Digital Signature 1.6.3 Message Authentication Code 1.6.3.1 Limitation on MAC 1.6.3.2 One Time MAC 1.6.4 Secure Hash Algorithm 1.6.4.1 Characteristics of SHA 1.6.4.2 Applications of SHA 1.6.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Signature 1.6.5.1 Advantages of Digital Signature 1.6.5.2 Disadvantages of Digital Signature 1.6.6 Conclusion References 2 Quantum Cryptographic Techniques 2.1 Post-Quantum Cryptography 2.2 Strength of Quantum Cryptography 2.3 Working Principle of Quantum Cryptography 2.4 Example of Quantum Cryptography 2.5 Fundamentals of Quantum Cryptography 2.5.1 Entanglement 2.5.1.1 Entanglement State 2.6 Problems With the One-Time Pad and Key Distribution 2.7 Quantum No-Cloning Property 2.8 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 2.9 Quantum Key Distribution 2.10 Cybersecurity Risks Prevailing in Current Cryptographic Techniques 2.11 Implementation of Quantum-Safe Cryptography 2.12 Practical Usage of Existing QKD Solutions 2.13 Attributes of Quantum Key Distribution 2.13.1 Key Rate 2.13.2 Length of the Link 2.13.3 Key Material Production 2.13.4 Robustness 2.13.5 Usage of the Key 2.14 Quantum Key Distribution Protocols 2.14.1 BB84 Protocol 2.14.2 Decoy State Protocol 2.14.3 T12 Protocol 2.14.4 SARG04 Protocol 2.14.5 Six-State Protocol 2.14.6 E91 Protocol 2.14.7 COW Protocol (Coherent One-Way Protocol) 2.14.8 HDQKD Protocol (High-Dimensional Quantum Key Distribution) 2.14.9 KMB09 Protocol 2.14.10 B92 Protocol 2.14.11 MSZ96 Protocol 2.14.12 DPS Protocol 2.14.13 Three-Stage Quantum Protocol 2.14.14 S09 Protocol 2.15 Applications of Quantum Cryptography 2.15.1 Multipoint Secure Computation 2.15.2 E-Commerce 2.15.3 Cloud Computing 2.16 Conclusion References 3 Evolution of Quantum Blockchain 3.1 Introduction of Blockchain 3.2 Introduction of Quantum Computing 3.2.1 Background and History of Quantum Computers 3.2.2 Scope of Quantum Computers in Blockchain 3.3 Restrictions of Blockchain Quantum 3.3.1 Post-Quantum Cryptography 3.3.1.1 Lattice Cryptography 3.3.2 Multivariate Cryptography 3.3.3 Hash Cryptography 3.3.4 Code Cryptography 3.4 Post-Quantum Cryptography Features 3.5 Quantum Cryptography 3.5.1 Working of QKD 3.5.2 Protocols of QKD 3.5.2.1 Prepare-and-Measure 3.5.2.2 Entanglement 3.6 Comparison Between Traditional and Quantum-Resistant Cryptosystems 3.7 Quantum Blockchain Applications 3.8 Blockchain Applications 3.8.1 Financial Application 3.8.2 Non-Financial Application 3.9 Limitations of Blockchain 3.10 Conclusion References 4 Development of the Quantum Bitcoin (BTC) 4.1 Introduction of BTC 4.2 Extract 4.3 Preservation 4.3.1 The Role of Cryptography in BTC 4.3.2 The Role of Decentralization in BTC 4.3.3 The Role of Immutability in BTC 4.3.4 The Role of Proof-of-Exertion in BTC 4.4 The Growth of BTC 4.5 Quantum Computing (History and Future) 4.6 Quantum Computation 4.7 The Proposal of Quantum Calculation 4.8 What Are Quantum Computers and How They Exertion? 4.9 Post-Quantum Cryptography 4.10 Difficulties Facing BTC 4.11 Conclusion References 5 A Conceptual Model for Quantum Blockchain 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Distributed Ledger Technology 5.2.1 Features of DLT 5.2.2 Quantum Computing 5.2.2.1 Growth of Quantum Computing 5.2.2.2 A Comparison of Classical Computingand Quantum Computing 5.2.3 Blockchain and Quantum Blockchain 5.2.3.1 Characteristics of Blockchain 5.2.3.2 Quantum Blockchain 5.3 Hardware Composition of the Quantum Computer 5.4 Framework Styles of Quantum Blockchain 5.4.1 Computational Elements 5.4.1.1 Qubits 5.4.1.2 Quantum Gates and Quantum Computation 5.4.2 The Architectural Patterns 5.4.2.1 Layered Approach 5.4.2.2 Securing Mechanisms for QuantumBlockchain 5.5 Fundamental Integrants 5.5.1 Interaction of Quantum Systems 5.5.2 Failure of Quantum Systems 5.5.3 Security of Quantum Systems 5.5.4 Challenges and Opportunities 5.6 Conclusion References 6 Challenges and Research Perspective of Post–Quantum Blockchain 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Cryptocurrency 6.1.2 Blockchain 6.1.2.1 Bitcoin and Cryptocurrencies 6.1.2.2 Insolent Bonds 6.1.2.3 Imminent Stage 6.1.3 Physiology of Blockchain 6.1.4 Blockchain Network 6.1.5 Blockchain Securities 6.1.5.1 Public Key Cryptography an AsymmetricCryptosystem 6.1.5.2 Digital Signature’s Hashing Algorithm 6.1.6 Bitcoin Blockchain 6.1.7 Quantum Cryptography 6.1.8 Quantum Blockchain 6.1.9 Post–Quantum Cryptography 6.2 Post–Quantum Blockchain Cryptosystems 6.2.1 Post–Quantum Blockchain Cryptosystems Based on Public Keys 6.2.1.1 Code–Based Cryptosystem 6.2.1.2 Multivariant–Based Cryptosystem 6.2.1.3 Lattice–Based Cryptosystem 6.2.1.4 Super Singular Elliptic–Curve IsogenyCryptosystem 6.2.1.5 Hybrid–Based Cryptosystem 6.2.2 Post–Quantum Blockchain Signatures 6.2.2.1 Code–Centred Digital Signature 6.2.2.2 Multivariant–Based Digital Signature 6.2.2.3 Lattice–Based Digital Signature 6.2.2.4 Super Singular Elliptic–Curve Isogeny Digital Signature 6.2.2.5 Hash–Based Digital Signature 6.3 Post–Quantum Blockchain Performance Comparison 6.3.1 Encryption Algorithm 6.3.2 Digital Signatures 6.4 Future Scopes of Post–Quantum Blockchain 6.4.1 NIST Standardization 6.4.2 Key and Signature Size 6.4.3 Faster Evolution 6.4.4 Post–Quantum Blockchain From Pre–Quantum 6.4.5 Generation of Keys 6.4.6 Computational Efficiency 6.4.7 Choosing Hardware 6.4.8 Overheads on Large Ciphertext 6.5 Conclusion References 7 Post-Quantum Cryptosystems for Blockchain 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Basics of Blockchain 7.3 Quantum and Post-Quantum Cryptography 7.4 Post-Quantum Cryptosystems for Blockchain 7.4.1 Public Key Post-Quantum Cryptosystems 7.4.1.1 Code-Based Cryptosystems 7.4.1.2 Lattice-Based Cryptosystems 7.4.1.3 Multivariate-Based Cryptosystem 7.4.1.4 Supersingular Elliptic Curve Isogency-Based Cryptosystems 7.4.1.5 Hybrid Cryptosystems 7.4.2 Post-Quantum Signing Algorithms 7.4.2.1 Code-Based Cryptosystems 7.4.2.2 Lattice-Based Cryptosystems 7.4.2.3 Multivariate Based Cryptosystem 7.4.2.4 Supersingular Elliptic Curve Isogency-Based Cryptosystem 7.4.2.5 Hash-Based Cryptosystem 7.5 Other Cryptosystems for Post-Quantum Blockchain 7.6 Conclusion References 8 Post-Quantum Confidential Transaction Protocols 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Confidential Transactions 8.2.1 Confidential Transaction Protocol 8.3 Zero-Knowledge Protocol 8.3.1 Properties 8.3.2 Types 8.3.2.1 Interactive Zero-Knowledge Proof 8.3.2.2 Non-Interactive Zero-Knowledge Proof (NIZKP) 8.3.3 Zero-Knowledge Proof for Graph Isomorphism 8.3.4 Zero-Knowledge Proof for Graph Non-Isomorphism 8.3.5 Zero-Knowledge Proof for NP-Complete Problems 8.3.5.1 Three-Coloring Problem 8.3.6 Zero-Knowledge Proofs for Specific Lattice Problems 8.3.7 Zero-Knowledge Proof for Blockchain 8.3.7.1 Messaging 8.3.7.2 Authentication 8.3.7.3 Storage Protection 8.3.7.4 Sending Private Blockchain Transactions 8.3.7.5 Complex Documentation 8.3.7.6 File System Control 8.3.7.7 Security for Sensitive Information 8.3.8 Zero-Knowledge Proof for High Level Compilers 8.4 Zero-Knowledge Protocols 8.4.1 Schnorr Protocol 8.4.2 S-Protocols 8.4.2.1 Three-Move Structure 8.5 Transformation Methods 8.5.1 CRS Model 8.5.2 Fiat-Shamir Heuristic 8.5.3 Unruh Transformation 8.6 Conclusion References 9 A Study on Post-Quantum Blockchain: The Next Innovation for Smarter and Safer Cities 9.1 Blockchain: The Next Big Thing in Smart City Technology 9.1.1 What is Blockchain, and How Does It Work? 9.1.1.1 The Blockchain Advantage 9.1.1.2 What is the Mechanism Behind Blockchain? 9.1.2 The Requirements for a Blockchain System 9.1.3 Using the Blockchain to Improve Smart City Efforts 9.2 Application of Blockchain Technology in Smart Cities 9.2.1 Big Data 9.2.1.1 Role of Big Data 9.2.1.2 Problems of Big Data 9.2.2 Energy Internet 9.2.2.1 Role of Energy Internet 9.2.2.2 Problems of Energy Internet 9.2.3 Internet of Things 9.2.3.1 Role of IoT 9.2.3.2 Problems of IoT 9.3 Using Blockchain to Secure Smart Cities 9.3.1 Blockchain Technology 9.3.2 Framework for Security 9.3.2.1 Physical Layer 9.3.2.2 Communication Layer 9.3.2.3 Database Layer 9.3.2.4 Interface Layer 9.4 Blockchain Public Key Security 9.4.1 Hash Function Security 9.4.2 Characteristics and Post-Quantum Schemes of Blockchain 9.5 Quantum Threats on Blockchain Enabled Smart City 9.5.1 Shor’s Algorithm 9.5.1.1 Modular Exponentiation 9.5.1.2 Factoring 9.5.2 Grover’s Algorithm 9.6 Post-Quantum Blockchain–Based Smart City Solutions 9.6.1 Lattice-Based Cryptography 9.6.2 Quantum Distributed Key 9.6.3 Quantum Entanglement in Time 9.7 Quantum Computing Fast Evolution 9.7.1 Transition—Pre-Quantum Blockchain to Post-Quantum Blockchain 9.7.2 Large Scale and Signature Size 9.7.3 Slow Key Generation 9.7.4 Computational and Energy Efficiency 9.7.5 Blockchain Hardware Unusability 9.7.6 Overheads Due to Large Ciphertext 9.7.7 Quantum Blockchain 9.8 Conclusion References 10 Quantum Protocols for Hash-Based Blockchain 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Consensus Protocols 10.2.1 Proof of Work (PoW) 10.2.2 Proof of Stake (PoS) 10.2.3 Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS) 10.2.4 Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) 10.2.5 Proof of Capacity 10.2.6 Proof of Elapsed Time 10.3 Quantum Blockchain 10.3.1 Quantum Protocols in Blockchain 10.3.1.1 Quantum Bit Commitment Protocols 10.3.1.2 Quantum Voting Protocols 10.4 Quantum Honest-Success Byzantine Agreement (QHBA) Protocol 10.5 MatRiCT Protocol 10.5.1 Setting Up the System Parameters 10.5.2 Generation of Public-Private Key Pairs 10.5.3 Generation of Serial Number for the Given Secret Key 10.5.4 Creation of Coins 10.5.5 Spending the Coins in Transaction 10.5.6 Verifying the Transaction 10.6 Conclusion References 11 Post-Quantum Blockchain–Enabled Services in Scalable Smart Cities 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Motivation and Contribution 11.2 Preliminaries 11.2.1 Quantum Computing 11.2.1.1 Basics of Quantum System 11.2.1.2 Architecture of Quantum System 11.2.1.3 Key Characteristics of Quantum Computing 11.2.1.4 Available Quantum Platform 11.2.2 Quantum Key Distribution 11.2.2.1 Discrete Variable QKD 11.2.2.2 Continuous Variable QKD 11.2.2.3 Measurement Device-Independent QKD 11.2.3 Blockchain 11.2.4 Reason for Blend of Blockchain and Quantum-Based Security in Applications Within Smart Cities 11.3 Related Work 11.4 Background of Proposed Work 11.4.1 Design Goal of Proposed Work 11.4.1.1 Impersonation Attack 11.4.1.2 Sybil Attack 11.4.1.3 Message Modification Attack 11.4.1.4 Message Replay Attack 11.4.1.5 Denial-of-Service Attack 11.4.1.6 Source Authentication 11.4.1.7 Message Integrity 11.4.1.8 Identity Privacy Preservation 11.4.2 Conversion of Bits From One State to Another 11.4.3 Decision Sequence 11.4.4 Interconversion Rule 11.4.5 Measurement Sequence 11.4.6 Template and Encrypted Key Generation 11.5 Proposed Work 11.5.1 System Architecture 11.5.2 Quantum Information Transmission 11.5.3 Life Cycle of Smart Contract 11.5.4 Algorithm Design and Flow 11.5.4.1 Stage 1: Contract Development 11.5.4.2 Stage 2: Contract Release 11.5.4.3 Step 3: Contract Execution 11.6 Conclusion References 12 Security Threats and Privacy Challenges in the Quantum Blockchain: A Contemporary Survey 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Types of Blockchain 12.2.1 Public Blockchain 12.2.2 Private Blockchain 12.2.3 Hybrid Blockchain 12.2.4 Consortium Blockchain 12.3 Quantum Blockchain: State of the Art 12.3.1 Blockchain Consensus Algorithm 12.3.1.1 Proof of Work 12.3.1.2 Proof of Stake 12.3.1.3 Proof of Activity 12.3.2 Quantum Computation Algorithms 12.3.2.1 Grover’s Algorithm 12.3.2.2 Shor’s Algorithm 12.4 Voting Protocol 12.4.1 Voting on Quantum Blockchain 12.4.2 Security Requirements 12.4.2.1 Obscurity 12.4.2.2 Binding 12.4.2.3 Non-Reusability 12.4.2.4 Verifiability 12.4.2.5 Eligibility 12.4.2.6 Fairness 12.4.2.7 Self-Tallying 12.5 Security and Privacy Issues in Quantum Blockchain 12.5.1 Public Key Cryptography 12.5.2 Hash Functions 12.6 Challenges and Research Perspective in Quantum Blockchain 12.6.1 Fast Evolution in Quantum Computing 12.6.2 Transition From Pre- to Post-Quantum Blockchain 12.6.3 Computational and Energy Efficiency 12.6.4 Standardization 12.6.5 Hardware Incompatibility in Quantum Blockchain 12.6.6 Large Cipher Text Overheads 12.6.7 Quantum Blockchain 12.7 Security Threats in Quantum Blockchain 12.7.1 Threats in Smart City Implementation 12.8 Applications of Quantum Blockchain 12.8.1 Banking and Finance 12.8.2 Healthcare 12.8.3 Food Industry 12.8.4 Asset Trading 12.8.5 E-Payment 12.8.6 Government Sector 12.8.7 IOTA in Quantum Blockchain 12.9 Characteristics of Post-Quantum Blockchain Schemes 12.9.1 Small Key Size 12.9.2 Small Hash Length and Signature 12.9.3 Processing Speed of Data 12.9.4 Low Energy Consumption 12.9.5 Low Computational Complexity 12.10 Conclusion References 13 Exploration of Quantum Blockchain Techniques Towards Sustainable Future Cybersecurity 13.1 Introduction to Blockchain 13.1.1 Blockchain History 13.1.2 Why Blockchain? 13.2 Insights on Quantum Computing 13.2.1 Quantum Supremacy 13.2.2 What is Quantum Supremacy? 13.2.3 Is Quantum Computing a Cybersecurity Threat? 13.2.4 Quantum Computing is not a Real Threat to Cryptocurrencies 13.2.5 Need for Quantum Computing in Blockchain 13.2.6 Ensuring a Secure, Functioning, and Resilient Critical Infrastructure 13.2.7 Critical Infrastructure’s Unique Threat Landscape 13.2.8 Response to the Quantum Threat and Blockchain 13.2.9 Ethereum 2.0 will be Quantum Resistant 13.3 Quantum Computing Algorithms 13.3.1 Grover’s Algorithm 13.3.2 Shor’s Algorithm 13.4 Quantum Secured Blockchain 13.4.1 Cybersecurity 13.4.2 Cyber-Physical Systems 13.4.3 Cybercrime and Cybersecurity Challenges 13.4.4 Community Cybersecurity Maturity Model 13.4.5 Cybersecurity in Smart Grid Systems 13.4.6 Smart Cities: Sustainable Future 13.5 Conclusion References 14 Estimation of Bitcoin Price Trends Using Supervised Learning Approaches 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Bitcoin 14.1.2 COVID-19 and Bitcoin 14.1.3 Price Prediction 14.2 Related Work 14.3 Methodology 14.3.1 Data Collection 14.3.2 Feature Engineering and Evaluation 14.3.3 Modeling 14.3.3.1 Linear Regression 14.3.3.2 Random Forest 14.3.3.3 Support Vector Machine 14.3.3.4 Recurrent Neural Network 14.3.3.5 Long Short-Term Memory 14.3.3.6 Autoregressive IntegratedMoving Average 14.4 Implementation of the Proposed Work 14.5 Results Evaluation and Discussion 14.6 Conclusion References Index EULA