The Engineering Design Primer

Description

Created to support senior-level courses/modules in product design, K. L. Richard's ENGINEERING DESIGN PRIMER reflects the author's deep experience in engineering product management and design. The combination of specific engineering design processes within the boader context of creative, team-based product design, makes this the ideal resource for project-based coursework. Starting with design concepts and tasks, the text then explores materials selection, optimisation, reliability, statistics, testing, and economic factors- all supported with real-life examples. Student readers will gain a practical perspective of the work they'll be doing as their engineering careers begin. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Contents Preface About the Author 1. Organisation and Structure of the Drawing Office 1.1. Introduction 1.2. The Purpose of the Drawing Office 1.3. The Importance of the Drawing Office 1.4. Organisation of a Typical Drawing Office 2. Engineering Drawing Principles 2.1. Introduction 2.1.1. Technical Product Documentation 2.1.2. BS 308 2.1.3. BS 8888:2000 2.2. Classification of Engineering Drawings 2.2.1. A Design Layout Drawing (or a Design Scheme) 2.2.2. A Detailed Drawing 2.2.3. Tabular Drawing 2.2.4. Assembly Drawing 2.2.5. Combined Drawing 2.2.6. Arrangement Drawing 2.2.7. Diagram Drawing 2.2.8. Items List (Also Referred to as a Parts List) 2.2.9. Drawing List 2.3. Drawing Sheet Sizes 2.3.1. Metric Sheet Sizes 2.3.2. Requirements of Drawing 2.3.3. Title Blocks 2.3.4. Borders and Frames 2.3.5. Trimming Marks 2.3.6. Centring Marks 2.3.7. Orientation Marks 2.3.8. Alphanumeric Reference Graduations 2.3.9. Drawing Scales 2.4. Engineering Drawing Numbers 2.4.1. Revision Numbers 2.4.2. Group Technology 2.4.3. Classification and Coding 2.5. Manual and Digital Draughting 2.5.1. Manual Draughting 2.5.1.1. Freehand Sketches 2.5.1.2. Formal Drawing 2.5.2. A Precautionary Tale 2.6. Projection Methods 2.6.1. Orthographic Projection 2.6.1.1. Principal View 2.6.2. Axonometric Projection 2.6.2.1. Isometric 2.6.2.2. Trimetric 2.6.2.3. Dimetric 2.6.2.4. Oblique 2.6.3. Perspective Projections 2.6.3.1. Single-Point Perspective 2.6.3.2. Second-Point Perspective 2.6.3.3. Three-Point Perspective 2.7. Line Types and Thicknesses 2.7.1. Dimension Lines 2.7.2. Leader Lines 2.7.3. The Decimal Marker 2.8. Sectional Views 2.9. Lettering, Symbols and Abbreviations 2.9.1. Basic Requirements of Lettering 2.9.2. Classification of Lettering 2.9.3. Height of Lettering 2.10. Dimensioning 2.10.1. Unidirectional 2.10.2. Aligned 2.10.3. Tabular 2.10.4. The Rules for Dimensioning 2.10.5. Features That Are Not Drawn to Scale 2.10.6. Chain Dimensioning 2.10.7. Parallel Dimensioning 2.10.8. Running Dimensioning 2.10.9. Staggered Dimensioning 2.10.10. Dimensioning Circles and Diameters 2.10.11. Dimensioning Radii 2.10.12. Dimensioning Spherical Radii 2.10.13. Dimensioning Curves 2.10.14. Unidirectional and Aligned Dimensions 2.10.15. Angular Dimensions 2.10.16. Dimensioning Tapers 2.10.17. Dimensioning Two Mating Tapers 2.10.18. Dimensioning Chamfers 2.10.19. Dimensioning Flats or Squares 2.10.20. Dimensioning Holes 2.10.20.1. Plain Holes 2.10.20.2. Threaded Holes 2.10.21. Dimensioning Spotfaces, Countersink and Counterbores 2.10.21.1. Spotface 2.10.21.2. Countersink 2.10.21.3. Counterbore 2.11. Tolerances, Limits and Fits 2.11.1. Dimension Tolerances 2.11.2. Limits 2.11.2.1. Tolerance 2.11.2.2. Allowance 2.11.2.3. Upper Deviation 2.11.2.4. Lower Deviation 2.11.2.5. Fundamental Deviation 2.11.3. Fit System 2.11.3.1. Clearance Fit 2.11.3.2. Transition Fit 2.11.3.3. Interference Fit 2.11.4. Standard Limits and Fits Systems 2.11.4.1. Standard Tolerances 2.11.4.2. Fundamental Deviations 2.11.4.3. Consider the Designation: 50H6/g5 2.11.4.4. 50g6 2.11.5. Upper and Lower Deviations 2.11.5.1. Shaft Letter Codes c, d, f, g and h 2.11.5.2. Shaft Letter Codes k, n, p, s and u 2.11.5.3. Hole Letter Code ‘H’ 2.11.6. Loose Running Fit (Example) 2.11.7. Surface Finish 2.11.8. Selected ISO Fits – Hole basis 2.11.9. Interpretation of Limits of Size in Relation to Form 2.12. Geometrical Dimensioning and Tolerances 2.12.1. Early History 2.12.2. Introduction 2.12.3. Application 2.12.4. Geometrical and Dimensioning and Tolerances 2.12.5. Tolerance Frame 2.13. Examples of the Applications of Geometrical Tolerances 2.13.1. Straightness 2.13.2. Flatness 2.13.3. Circularity 2.13.4. Cylindricity 2.13.5. Profile of a Surface 2.14. Maximum Material and Least Material Principles 2.14.1. Maximum Material Conditions and Least Material Condition 2.15. Surface Finish 2.15.1. Introduction 2.15.2. Types of Surface Finish 2.15.2.1. Surface Roughness 2.15.2.2. Waviness 2.15.2.3. Lay 2.15.3. Methods of Indicating Surface Finish and Texture 2.15.3.1. Graphical Symbols to Indicate Surface Texture 2.16. Checking Drawings 2.16.1. Drawing Numbering 2.16.2. Format for Checking Drawings 2.16.3. Read Notes 2.16.4. Detailed Drawings 2.16.5. Assembly Drawings 2.16.6. General Draughting Rules 3. The Engineering Design Process 3.1. Introduction 3.1.2. Design Specification 3.1.3. Concept Development 3.1.4. Feasibility Assessment 3.1.5. Complete PDS 3.1.6. Preliminary Design 3.1.7. Detail Design 3.1.8. Manufacture 3.1.9. Marketing and Sales 3.2. Classification of Design 3.2.1. Adaptive Design 3.2.2. Development Design 3.2.3. New Design 3.2.4. Rational Design 3.2.5. Empirical Design 3.2.6. Industrial Design 3.2.7. Product Design 3.2.8. Optimum Design 3.2.9. System Design 3.2.10. Tooling Design 3.3. New Design Requirements 3.3.1. Update an Existing Product 3.3.2. New Product 3.3.3. Market Research 3.3.3.1. Preliminary Market Research 3.3.3.2. Review Current Competitors and Products 3.3.3.3. Is There a Marketing Opportunity? 3.3.4. Initial Design Review 3.3.5. Preliminary Design Review 3.3.6. Product Design Specification 3.3.6.1. Performance 3.3.6.2. Environment 3.3.6.3. Target Production Cost 3.3.6.4. Competition 3.3.6.5. Standards 3.3.6.6. Packing 3.3.6.7. Shipping 3.3.6.8. Size 3.3.6.9. Materials 3.3.6.10. Proprietary Items (Bought Out Parts) 3.3.6.11. Maintenance 3.3.6.12. Product Lifespan 3.3.6.13. Reliability 3.3.6.14. Finishing 4. Product Design Specification 4.0. Introduction 4.1. Description of the Product 4.1.1. Product Brief (Description and Justification) 4.1.2. The Environment the Product Will Be Expected to Operate in 4.1.3. Product Safety Requirements 4.1.4. Expected Product Reliability Standards and Requirements 4.1.5. Expected Product Ergonomic Requirements – Customer Requirement 4.1.6. Expected Product Aesthetics – Customer Requirement 4.1.7. Expected Product Maintenance Requirements 4.1.8. Possible ‘Off-the-Shelf’ Proprietary Parts Are Used? 4.1.9. Material Requirements 4.1.10. Product End-of-Life Requirements 4.1.11. Manufacturing Process Requirements and Limitations 4.1.12. Product Packaging Requirements 4.1.13. Applicable Codes of Practice and Standards to Be Checked 4.1.14. Check for Any Patent Infringement 4.1.15. Processes to Be Researched and Benchmarked: Special Fabrication Techniques to Be Researched 4.1.16. Any Special Product or Part Testing Requirements 4.2. Marketing Issues 4.2.1. Potential Customer Base 4.2.2. Market Constraints on Products 4.2.3. Expected Product Competition (These Will Be Benchmarked) 4.2.4. Product Target Price – OEM and MSRP 4.2.5. Target Production Volume and Potential Market Share 4.2.6. Expected Product Distribution Environment 4.3. Capability Issues 4.3.1. Company Constraints on Product Design, Manufacture and Distribution 4.3.2. Schedule Requirements – Time to Market 5. Conceptual Design 5.1. Creativity Methods 5.2. Breaking the Mindset 5.2.1. Inversion 5.2.2. Analogy 5.2.3. Empathy 5.2.4. Fantasy 5.2.5. Brainstorming 5.2.6. Problem Definition 5.2.7. Divergence 5.2.8. Categorisation 5.2.9. Convergence Phase 5.2.10. Individual Brainstorming 5.2.11. Group Brainstorming 5.2.12. Brainwriting 5.2.13. Mind Mapping 5.2.14. SCAMPER 5.2.15. TRIZ 5.2.16. Concept Evaluation and Selection 5.2.17. Criteria for Evaluation 5.2.18. Feasibility Judgement 5.2.19. Technological Readiness 5.2.20. Go/No-Go Screening 5.2.21. Decision Matrix 5.2.22. Feasibility Assessment 5.2.23. Technical Feasibility 5.2.24. Financial and Market Feasibility 5.2.25. Organisational Feasibility 6. Design for ‘X’ 6.1. Introduction 6.2. Design for Manufacture 6.2.1. Machinability 6.2.1.1. Machinability Rating 6.2.2. Shape 6.2.3. Tolerances and Surface Finish 6.2.3.1. Tolerances 6.2.3.2. Surface Finishes 6.2.4. Product Design Guidelines 1 6.2.4.1. Design Parts to Minimise Machining 6.2.4.2. Essential Reasons for Machining 6.2.5. Product Design Guidelines II 6.3. Design for Quality 6.3.1. Defining Quality 6.3.2. The Importance of Design for Quality 6.3.3. Design for Quality 6.3.4. Benefits of Design for Quality 6.3.5. Design Reviews 6.3.6. The Importance of Formal Design Reviews 6.3.7. Types of Design Reviews 6.3.7.1. Design Requirements Review 6.3.7.2. Conceptual Design Review 6.3.7.3. Preliminary Design Review 6.3.7.4. Critical Design Review 6.3.7.5. Qualification Readiness Review 6.3.7.6. Final Design Review 6.3.8. The Design Review Team 6.3.9. Design Review Input Data 6.3.10. Design Review Reports 6.3.11. Design Review Follow-Up 6.3.12. Failure Modes and Effects Analysis 6.3.12.1. A Brief History 6.3.12.2. Purpose of FMEA 6.3.12.3. Steps to Carry Out an FMEA 6.3.13. Summary 6.4. Design for Reliability 6.4.1. Reliability and the Bathtub Curve 6.4.1.1. Causes of Component Failure 6.4.2. Safety Critical Design 6.4.3. Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) 6.4.3.1. Drawing Fault Trees: Gates and Events 6.4.4. General Procedure for Fault Tree Analysis 6.4.5. Rules to Fault Tree Construction 6.4.5.1. Example 6.4.6. Fault Tree Construction 6.5. Fault Tree Evaluation 6.5.1. The ‘OR’ Gate 6.6. Robust Design 6.6.1. Introduction 6.6.2. Sources of Variation 6.6.2.1. Material Properties 6.6.2.2. Applied Forces 6.6.2.3. Temperature 6.6.2.4. Environmental Factors 6.6.2.5. Assembly Methods 6.6.2.6. Kinematic Effects 6.6.2.7. Manufacturing Processes 6.6.2.8. Classify the Variables 6.6.3. Taguchi’s Loss Function 6.6.4. P-Diagram (Parametric Diagram) 6.6.5. Taguchi Concepts 6.6.5.1. An Example of Robust design via the Taguchi Method 6.6.6. The Taguchi Loss Function 6.6.7. Signal-to-Noise Ratio 6.7. Design for Maintenance 6.7.1. Standardisation 6.7.1.1. Authors Note 6.7.2. Modularisation 6.7.3. Functional Packaging 6.7.4. Interchangeability 6.7.5. Accessibility 6.7.6. Malfunction Annunciation 6.7.7. Fault isolation 6.7.8. Identification 6.7.9. Summary 6.8. Design for the Environment 6.8.1. Introduction 6.8.2. The Importance of Design for the Environment 6.8.2.1. Non-Toxic Processes and Production Methods 6.8.2.2. Minimum Energy Utilisation 6.8.2.3. Minimum Emissions 6.8.2.4. Minimum Waste, Scrap and By-Products 6.8.3. Design for Environmental Packaging Involving the Following Considerations 6.8.3.1. Minimum of Packaging Materials 6.8.3.2. Reusable Pallets, Totes and Packaging 6.8.3.3. Recyclable Packaging Materials 6.8.3.4. Bio-Degradable Packaging Materials 6.8.4. Design for Disposable and Recyclability Involving the Following Considerations 6.8.5. Design for Disassembly 6.9. Design for Life Cycle Costs 6.9.1. Manufacturing Costs 6.9.2. Life Cycle Costing 7. Feasibility Assessment 7.1. Strategic Management 7.2. Technical Feasibility 7.3. Financial and Market Feasibility 7.4. Organisational Feasibility 7.5. Marketing Feasibility 7.5.1. Potential Market Size 7.5.2. Market Trends 7.6. Critical Issues 7.6.1. SWOT (Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) 7.6.2. Pest (Political, Economic, Social, Technological) 7.7. Technical Feasibility 7.7.1. Summary 7.7.2. Prepare an Outline 7.7.3. Calculate Material Requirements 7.7.4. Calculate Labour Requirements 7.7.5. Transportation and Shipping Requirements 7.7.6. Calculate Marketing Requirements 7.7.7. The Physical Location of the Business 7.7.8. Technology Requirements 7.7.9. Target Dates 7.7.10. Financial Information 8. Decision-Making 8.1. What Is Decision-Making 8.1.1. Intuition 8.1.2. Reasoning 8.1.3. Applying Both Intuition and Reasoning 8.1.4. What Can Prevent Effective Decision-Making? 8.1.4.1. Too Much Information 8.1.4.2. Too Many People 8.1.4.3. Emotional Attachments 8.1.4.4. No Emotional Attachment 8.1.4.5. Identifying Possible Solutions/Options 8.2. Setting a Time Scale and Deciding Who Is Responsible for the Decision 8.2.1. Responsibility for the Decision 8.2.2. Whenever possible, and if it is not obvious, a better formal agreement is needed to identify who is responsibility for a decision 8.3. Information Gathering 8.3.1. Before Making Any Decision, All Relevant Information Needs to Be Gathered 8.4. Weighing the Risks Involved 8.5. Deciding on Values 8.6. Weighing Up the Pros and Cons 8.7. Making the Decision 8.8. Having Made the Decision … 8.9. Introduction to Constructing Decision Trees 8.9.1. What Is a Decision Tree? 8.9.2. Decision Tree Symbols 8.9.3. How to Draw a Decision Tree 8.9.3.1. Start with the Main Decision 8.9.3.2. Add Chance and Decision Nodes 8.9.3.3. Continue to Expand the Tree until Every Line Has Reached an Endpoint 8.10. With the Completion of the Decision Tree 8.10.1. An Example of a Decision Tree Example 8.10.2. Reading Decision Trees 8.11. Learning Decision Trees Using Iterative Dichotomiser 3 (ID3) 8.11.1. Specifying the Problem 8.11.2. The Basic Idea 8.11.3. Entropy 8.11.4. Information Gain 8.11.5. An Example Calculation 8.11.6. The ID3 Algorithm 8.11.7. Worked Example 8.12. Avoiding Overfitting 8.13. Appropriate Problems for Decision Tree Learning 9. Project Management and Planning 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Work Breakdown and Coding 9.3. Estimating Techniques 9.3.1. Gantt Chart 9.3.1.1. Creating a Gantt Chart 9.3.2. Critical Path Method 9.3.2.1. Key Steps in the Critical Path Method 9.3.3. PERT Estimation Technique 9.3.3.1. Introduction 9.3.3.2. The PERT Basics 9.4. Resource Scheduling 9.5. Project Implementation 9.5.1. Implementation Plan Structure 10. Engineering Design Economics 10.1. Project/Design Cost Accounting 10.1.1. Project/Design Cost Estimating 10.1.2. Key Components of a Cost Estimate 10.1.2.1. Direct Costs 10.1.2.2. Indirect Costs 10.2. Cost Categories 10.2.1. Investment Cost 10.2.2. Operations and Maintenance Cost 10.2.3. Fixed and Variable Cost 10.2.4. Incremental and Marginal Cost 10.2.5. Indirect and Direct Costs 10.2.6. Non-recurring and Recurring Costs 10.3. Cost Accounting 10.4. Cost Estimating 10.5. Payback Period 10.6. Interest 10.7. Cash Flow 10.7.1. Definition of ‘Cash Flow’ 10.7.1.1. Definition 10.7.2. Description 10.8. Depreciation and Taxes 10.9. Inflation and Deflation 11. Quality in the Design Process 11.1. Introduction 11.2. Design Procedures 11.2.1. Design Control 11.2.1.1. Design Reviews 11.2.1.2. Design Requirements Review 11.2.1.3. Conceptual Design Review 11.2.1.4. Preliminary Design Review 11.2.1.5. Critical Design Review 11.2.1.6. Qualification Readiness Review 11.2.1.7. Final Design Review 11.2.1.8. The Design Review Team 11.2.1.9. Design Review Input Data 11.2.1.10. Design Review Reports 11.2.1.11. Design Review Follow-Up 11.2.1.12. Qualification Tests and Demonstrations 11.2.2. Verification Design Calculations 11.2.3. Comparing Similar Designs 11.2.4. Changes and Modifications 11.3. Quality Assurance and Control 11.4. Design Change Control 11.5. Implementing the Change 11.6. The Reason for the Change 11.7. Quality Function Deployment 11.7.1. Introduction 11.7.2. What is QFD? 11.7.3. Why Implement QFD? 11.7.4. How to Implement QFD? 11.7.5. Level 1 QFD 11.7.6. Level 2 QFD 11.7.7. Level 3 QFD 11.7.8. Level 4 QFD 12. Design for Optimisation 12.1. Defining Optimum Design 12.2. Tools for Design Optimisation 12.3. Mathematical Models and Optimisation Methods 12.3.1. Differential Calculus Method 12.3.2. The Lagrange Multiplier Method 12.4. Search Methods 12.5. Fibonacci Search Method 12.5.1. What Is the Golden Section Method? 12.5.2. Terminology 12.5.3. Working Method 12.5.3.1. Initialisation Step 12.5.4. Main Step 12.6. Conclusions 13. Probability 13.1. Introduction 13.2. Probability Formula 13.2.1. What is the Formula for Probability? 13.3. Solving Probability Problems 13.4. Numerical Value of Probability 13.5. Calculation of Probability 13.5.1. Proportion of Cases Favourable in an Exhaustive Set 13.5.2. Addition of Probabilities 13.6. Permutations and Combinations 13.6.1. Permutations 13.6.2. Combinations 13.6.3. Compound Probability and Multiplication of Probabilities 13.6.3.1. Compound Events and Dependence 13.7. Binomial, Poisson and Multinomial Laws of Probability 13.7.1. Series of Trials 13.8. The Poisson Distribution 13.8.1. Formula 14. Statistical Methods for Engineers 14.1. Definitions for Some Terms Used in Statistics 14.1.1. Population 14.1.2. Sample 14.1.3. Variate (xr) 14.1.3.1. Continuous Variates 14.1.3.2. Discrete Variates 14.1.4. Frequency (fr) 14.1.5. Mean (M) (Arithmetic Mean Average) 14.1.6. Mode 14.1.7. Median 14.1.8. Quartiles, Deciles, Percentiles (Partition Values) 14.1.9. Dispersion 14.1.10. Standard Deviation (σ) (Variance σ2) 14.1.11. Range 14.1.12. Kurtosis 14.1.13. Skewness 14.2. Frequency Distribution and Pictorial Representations 14.2.1. Bar Chart 14.2.2. Histogram 14.2.3. Frequency Polygon 14.3. Short Method for Calculating the Mean 14.4. Short Method of Calculating the Standard Deviation 14.5. Best Equation of a Curve – Method of Least Squares 14.6. Correlation and Lines of Regression 14.6.1. Correlation 14.6.2. Positive Correlation 14.6.3. Negative Correlation 14.6.4. Perfect Correlation 14.6.5. Zero Correlation 14.6.6. Standard Error of ‘r’ 14.6.7. Regression Lines 14.7. Binomial Distribution 14.8. The Poisson Distribution 14.8.1. Poisson Distribution of Flying Bomb Hits on London During World War II 14.9. The Normal Distribution 14.9.1. Fitting a Normal Curve to a Set of Observations 14.10. Elementary Statistical Quality Control 14.10.1. Seven Basic Tools of Quality 14.10.2. Cause and Effect Diagram 14.10.2.1. An Example Fishbone Diagram 14.10.3. Check Sheet 14.10.4. Control Sheet 14.10.4.1. When to Use a Control Chart 14.10.5. Histograms 14.10.5.1. The Construction of a Histogram from a Continuous Variable 14.10.6. Pareto Chart 14.10.7. Scatter Diagram 14.10.7.1. Discussion 14.10.7.2. Pareto Charts 14.10.7.3. When to Use a Pareto Chart 14.10.7.4. Pareto Chart Procedure 15. An Introduction to Material Selection 15.1. Introduction 15.2. Stress-Strain Data 15.2.1. Definitions of Terms 15.2.1.1. Proportional Limit 15.2.1.2. Yield Strength 15.2.1.3. 0.2% Offset 15.2.1.4. Ultimate Strength 15.2.1.5. Modulus of Resilience (see Figure 15.2) 15.2.1.6. Poisson’s Ratio 15.2.1.7. Shear Rigidity 15.2.1.8. Ductility 15.2.1.9. Elongation 15.2.1.10. Creep 15.3. Things to Consider 15.3.1. Environment 15.3.2. Strength 15.3.3. Durability 15.3.4. Stiffness 15.3.5. Weight 15.3.6. Manufacturing 15.3.7. Cost 15.3.8. Maintainability 15.3.9. A Model for Material Selection 15.3.9.1. Geometry 15.3.9.2. Analysis 15.3.9.3. Measurement Evaluation 15.3.9.4. Material Selection 15.3.9.5. Manufacturability 15.3.9.6. Adequacy of Design 15.4. Future Developments 15.4.1. Knowledge-Based Engineering 15.5. Material Performance Indices 16. Mathematical Modelling and Simulation 16.1. What is Mathematical Modelling 16.1.1. Modelling: Newton’s Second Law of Motion 16.2. Example of Numerical Modelling 16.3. Development of the Mathematical Model 16.3.1. Identify the Problem 16.3.2. Formulating the Problem 16.3.3. Collect and Process System Data 16.4. Simulation Methods 16.5. Simulation Model Validation 16.6. Problems Suitable for Simulation 16.7. Selecting Suitable Simulation Software 16.8. Benefits of Mathematical and Simulation Modelling 16.9. Pitfalls to Guard Against When Mathematical and Simulation Modelling 17. Introduction to Configuration Management 17.1. Introduction 17.2. Configuration Control and Change Control 17.2.1. Change Control 17.3. What Is Change Management? 17.4. Three levels of Change Management 17.4.1. Individual Change Management 17.4.2. Organisational/Initiative Change Management 17.4.3. Enterprise Change Management Capability 18. Engineering Communications 18.1. Introduction 18.2. The Formal Engineering Report 18.2.1. The Abstract 18.2.1.1. The Introduction 18.2.2. Technical Approach (Theory) 18.2.3. Structure 18.2.4. Presentation 18.2.5. Planning the Report 18.2.6. Writing the First Draft 18.2.7. Test Set-Up 18.2.8. Revising the First Draft 18.2.9. Diagrams, Graphs, Tables and Mathematics 18.2.10. The Report Layout 18.2.11. Headings 18.2.12. References to Diagrams, Graphs, Tables and Equations 18.2.13. Originality and Plagiarism 18.2.14. Finalising the Report and Proofreading 18.2.15. The Summary 18.2.16. References 18.2.17. Acknowledgements 18.2.18. Appendices 18.3. Proposed Preparation 18.3.1. Background/Problem Statement 18.3.2. Objectives 18.3.3. Technical Approach 18.3.4. Budget 18.3.5. Organisation and Capability 18.4. Oral Communications 18.4.1. The Audience 18.4.2. Planning the Presentation 18.4.3. Delivering the Presentation 18.4.4. Effective Use of Notes 18.4.5. The Use of Visual Aides Index