Production of Biodiesel from Non-Edible Sources: Technological Updates

Description

Production of Biodiesel from Non-Edible Sources: Technological Updates offers a step-by-step guide to the production of biodiesel, providing comparisons of existing methods, new and state-of-the-art technologies, and real-world examples of implementation. The book discusses all potential non-edible feedstocks for biodiesel production, providing their properties, availability, and processing, including deeper insights into kinetic models and simulation of biodiesel fermentation. Readers will gain knowledge of existing parameters and methods for biodiesel production, optimization, scale-up, and sustainability, along with guidance on the practical implementation of these methods and techniques. Finally, environmental sustainability, techno-economic analysis, and policymaking aspects are considered and put into the context of future prospects. This book offers a step-by-step guide for researchers and industry practitioners involved in bioenergy, renewable energy, biofuels production and bioconversion processes. Cover Production of Biodiesel from Non-Edible Sources Copyright Contents List of contributors 1 Introduction 1.1 Overview of energy resources and consumption 1.1.1 Energy and economy 1.1.2 Global energy resources 1.1.2.1 Coal 1.1.2.2 Crude oil 1.1.2.3 Natural gas 1.1.2.4 Nuclear energy 1.1.2.5 Hydropower 1.1.2.6 Bioenergy 1.1.2.7 Solar 1.1.2.8 Wind energy 1.1.2.9 Carbon capture and storage 1.1.2.10 Marine energy 1.1.2.11 Geothermal energy 1.1.3 Recent advancements in energy resources 1.2 Current production rate and demands for diesel fuel 1.3 Biodiesel as a promising renewable energy carrier 1.3.1 Catalyst 1.3.1.1 Enzymatic catalyst 1.3.1.2 Homogeneous catalyst 1.3.1.3 Heterogeneous catalyst 1.4 Need for non-edible oil as biodiesel feedstock 1.4.1 Seed oil–producing plants 1.4.2 Insects 1.5 Conclusions References 2 Biodiesel and its properties 2.1 Biodiesel and its properties 2.2 Methods of biodiesel production 2.2.1 Blending of crude oils or dilution 2.2.2 Micro-emulsification 2.2.3 Pyrolysis 2.2.4 Transesterification: catalytic and non-catalytic (supercritical) 2.2.4.1 Catalytic transesterification 2.2.4.2 Non-catalytic transesterification biodiesel production process 2.2.4.3 Esterification of non-edible oils 2.2.5 Methods of transesterification 2.2.5.1 Conventional (water bath, heating mantle, hot plate) 2.2.5.2 Process intensification techniques Microwave-assisted transesterification Ultrasound-assisted transesterification Hydrodynamic cavitation technique Electrolysis technique 2.3 Biodiesel standards and characterization 2.3.1 ASTM and EN standards 2.3.2 Quantification of biodiesel 2.4 Properties and characteristics of non-edible biodiesel 2.4.1 Water and sediment content 2.4.2 Density 2.4.3 Kinematic viscosity 2.4.4 Lubricity 2.4.5 Acid number 2.4.6 Iodine number 2.4.7 Cloud point and pour point 2.4.8 Cold filter plugging point 2.4.9 Flash point 2.4.10 Cetane number 2.4.11 Calorific value 2.4.12 Sulfur content 2.4.13 Sulfated ash 2.4.14 Ester content 2.4.15 Free and total glycerin 2.4.16 Phosphorus content 2.4.17 Copper strip corrosion 2.4.18 Carbon residue 2.4.19 Oxidative stability 2.4.20 Group I metals (Na+K) 2.4.21 Group II metals (Ca+Mg) References 3 Non-edible feedstock: necessity and societal implications 3.1 International trends in food supply and demand 3.2 Oil extraction methods 3.3 Feedstock preparation 3.3.1 Kernel extraction and drying 3.3.2 Core extraction 3.3.3 Drying the core 3.3.4 Oil content of non-edible feedstocks 3.4 Extraction techniques 3.4.1 Mechanical extraction 3.4.2 Chemical or solvent extraction 3.4.3 Enzymatic extraction 3.4.4 Supercritical fluid extraction 3.4.5 Microwave-assisted extraction 3.5 The most-used non-edible oils for biodiesel production 3.5.1 Castor oil (Ricinus communis) 3.5.2 Cottonseed oil (Gossypium hirsutum) 3.5.3 Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) 3.5.4 Karanja seed (Pongamia pinnata L.) 3.5.5 Linseed oil (Linum usitatissimum) 3.5.6 Mahua (Madhuca indica) 3.5.7 Neem (Azadirachta indica) 3.5.8 Rice bran oil (Oryza sativa) 3.5.9 Waste oils 3.5.10 Algae oil 3.5.11 Polanga (Calophyllum inophyllum) 3.5.12 Fuel quality of biodiesel from different feedstocks 3.6 Conclusion References 4 Transesterification methods 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Chemical method of biodiesel production 4.2.1 Homogeneous catalytic transesterification 4.2.1.1 Acid-catalyzed transesterification 4.2.1.2 Alkali-catalyzed transesterification 4.2.1.3 Acid- and alkali-catalyzed two-step transesterification 4.2.2 Heterogeneous catalytic transesterification 4.2.2.1 Solid catalyst 4.2.2.2 Acid solid catalysts 4.2.2.3 Base solid catalyst 4.2.2.4 Acid–base solid catalysts or bi-functional catalysts 4.2.2.5 Waste material-based heterogeneous catalysts 4.2.3 Precursor techniques 4.2.4 Reactive extraction process 4.3 Biological method 4.3.1 Enzymatic-catalyzed transesterification 4.3.2 Whole-cell biocatalyst 4.4 Supercritical fluid techniques of transesterification 4.5 Materials, reagents, and equipment 4.5.1 Fatty oils for biodiesel production 4.5.2 Reagents required for biodiesel production 4.5.3 Biodiesel processing equipment 4.5.4 Steps and protocols for small-scale biodiesel production 4.6 The production facility and space 4.7 Analysis and statistics of biodiesel production 4.7.1 Fuel quality 4.8 Safety considerations during biodiesel production 4.8.1 Chemical exposure and safety 4.8.2 Handling of by-products 4.8.3 Safety gears during biodiesel production 4.9 Environmental issues and regulations 4.9.1 Biodiesel-induced land-use changes 4.9.2 Regulation issues in biodiesel production and utilization 4.10 Summary References 5 Biodiesel production: key factors affecting the efficiency of the process 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Factors affecting biodiesel yield 5.2.1 Reaction temperature 5.2.2 Reaction time 5.2.3 Concentration of catalyst 5.2.4 Molar ratio of alcohol to oil 5.3 The statistical optimization of non-edible oil transesterification 5.3.1 Response surface methodology 5.3.2 Artificial neural network 5.4 Kinetics of transesterification 5.5 Conclusion References 6 Pilot plant and industrial-scale operations for biodiesel production 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Biodiesel plant design 6.3 Reactor technologies for biodiesel production 6.3.1 Stirred-tank reactors 6.3.1.1 Batch stirred-tank reactors 6.3.1.2 Continuous stirred-tank reactors 6.3.2 Membrane reactors 6.3.3 Plug-flow reactors 6.3.3.1 Packed bed reactors 6.3.3.2 Fluidized bed reactors 6.3.3.3 Trickle bed reactors 6.3.4 Laminar flow reactors 6.3.5 Microwave reactors 6.3.6 Microreactors 6.3.7 Cavitation reactors 6.3.7.1 Ultrasound reactors 6.3.7.2 Hydrodynamic cavitation reactors Acknowledgment References 7 Environmental sustainability, technoeconomic analysis, and policy-making aspects of biodiesel 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Economic aspects and impacts of biodiesel production 7.2.1 Biodiesel policies and mandates 7.2.2 Biodiesel trade-offs and feedstock sustainability 7.2.3 Social acceptance of biodiesel 7.3 Total investment cost for biodiesel production 7.4 Profitability of biodiesel production 7.5 Life cycle assessment 7.6 Environmental considerations 7.6.1 Potential toxicological impacts and human health risks of biodiesel 7.6.2 Assessment of environmental, economic, and social implications of biodiesel 7.6.3 Sustainability challenges and aspects of future biodiesel production and use 7.7 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 8 Concluding remarks and future prospects Index Backcover