Human anatomy & physiology

Description

Cover Title Page Copyright Page About the Author Team Preface Instructor Supplements Acknowledgments Contents Unit 1 Fundamental Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology 1.1 How to Succeed in Your Anatomy and Physiology Course How to Develop Study Skills How to Make the Best Use of Class and Lab Time How to Use This Book and Its Associated Materials 1.2 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Characteristics of Living Organisms Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems Types of Anatomy and Physiology 1.3 The Language of Anatomy and Physiology The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms Regional Terms Planes of Section 1.4 The Organization of the Human Body The Dorsal Body Cavity The Ventral Body Cavity 1.5 Core Principles in Anatomy and Physiology Overall Theme: Physiological Processes Operate to Maintain the Body’s Homeostasis Core Principle One: Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis Core Principle Two: Structure and Function Are Related at All Levels of Organization Core Principle Three: Gradients Drive Many Physiological Processes Core Principle Four: Cell-Cell Communication Is Required to Coordinate Body Functions Concept Boost Putting Anatomical Terms Together Concept Boost Debunking Some Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis A&P in the Real World Abdominal Pain A&P in the Real World Medical Imaging A&P in the Real World Childbirth, Pitocin, and Positive Feedback Loops 2 The Chemistry of Life 2.1 Atoms and Elements Atoms and Atomic Structure Elements in the Periodic Table and the Human Body Isotopes and Radioactivity 2.2 Matter Combined: Mixtures and Chemical Bonds Mixtures Chemical Bonds Ions and Ionic Bonds Covalent Bonds 2.3 Chemical Reactions Chemical Notation Energy and Chemical Reactions Homeostasis and Types of Chemical Reactions Reaction Rates and Enzymes 2.4 Inorganic Compounds: Water, Acids, Bases, and Salts Water Acids and Bases Salts and Electrolytes 2.5 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleotides Monomers and Polymers Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Concept Boost Determining the type of Bonds in a Molecule Concept Boost Making Sense of the pH Scale A&P in the Real World Nuclear Medicine A&P in the Real World Enzyme Deficiencies A&P in the Real World the Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of Fatty Acids 3 The Cell 3.1 Introduction to Cells Basic Processes of Cells Overview of Cell Structure Cell Size and Diversity 3.2 Structure of the Plasma Membrane The Phospholipid Bilayer The Fluid Mosaic Model of the Plasma Membrane 3.3 Transport across the Plasma Membrane Passive Transport Processes Active Transport via Membrane Proteins Consequences of Ion Transport across the Plasma Membrane: Introduction to Electrophysiology Active Transport via Vesicles 3.4 Cytoplasmic Organelles Mitochondria Peroxisomes Ribosomes The Endomembrane System 3.5 The Cytoskeleton Types of Filaments Cellular Extensions 3.6 The Nucleus Nuclear Envelope Chromatin and Chromosomes Nucleoli 3.7 Protein Synthesis Genes and the Genetic Code Transcription Translation Regulation of Gene Expression 3.8 The Cell Cycle Phases of the Cell Cycle Cell Cycle Control and Cancer Concept Boost Understanding Water Movement in Osmosis Concept Boost Connecting a DNa Triplet to a Particular Amino Acid The Big Picture of Protein Synthesis A&P in the Real World Drugs and Membrane Receptors A&P in the Real World Dehydration, Sports Drinks, and Water A&P in the Real World Cystic Fibrosis A&P in the Real World Lysosomal Storage Diseases A&P in the Real World Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia A&P in the Real World Toxicity of the “Death Cap” Mushroom A&P in the Real World Spindle Poisons 4 Histology 4.1 Introduction to Tissues Types of Tissues The Extracellular Matrix Cell Junctions 4.2 Epithelial Tissues Components and Classification of Epithelia Covering and Lining Epithelia Glandular Epithelia 4.3 Connective Tissues Connective Tissue Proper Specialized Connective Tissues 4.4 Muscle Tissues Components of Muscle Tissue Types of Muscle Tissue 4.5 Nervous Tissue 4.6 Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Tissues in Organs 4.7 Membranes True Membranes Membrane-like Structures 4.8 Tissue Repair Capacity of Specific Tissues for Tissue Repair Other Factors Affecting Tissue Repair Concept Boost “But It All Looks Pink!” Part 1 Concept Boost “But It all Looks Pink!” Part 2 The Big Picture of Tissues in Organs A&P in the Real World Diseases of Collagen and Elastic Fibers A&P in the Real World Carcinogens and Epithelial Tissues A&P in the Real World Adipose Tissue and Obesity A&P in the Real World Osteoarthritis and Glucosamine Supplements A&P in the Real World Friction Rubs Unit 2 Body Coverings and Movement 5 The Integumentary System 5.1 Overview of the Integumentary System Skin Structure Functions of the Integumentary System 5.2 The Epidermis Keratinocytes Other Cells of the Epidermis Thick and Thin Skin 5.3 The Dermis Papillary Layer Reticular Layer Skin Markings 5.4 Skin Pigmentation Melanin Other Pigments That Affect Skin Color: Carotene and Hemoglobin Skin Color as a Diagnostic Tool 5.5 Accessory Structures of the Integument: Hair, Nails, and Glands Hair Nails Glands 5.6 Pathology of the Skin Burns Skin Cancer Study Boost Remembering the Strata of the Epidermis Concept Boost Understanding Epidermal Growth A&P in the Real World Cellulite A&P in the Real World Topical Medications A&P in the Real World Skin Wrinkles A&P in the Real World Tanning and a “Healthy Tan” A&P in the Real World Acne 6 Bones and Bone Tissue 6.1 Introduction to Bones as Organs Functions of the Skeletal System Bone Structure 6.2 Microscopic Structure of Bone Tissue The Extracellular Matrix of Bone Bone Cells Histology of Bone Tissue 6.3 Bone Formation: Ossification Intramembranous Ossification Endochondral Ossification 6.4 Bone Growth in Length and Width Growth in Length Growth in Width The Role of Hormones in Bone Growth 6.5 Bone Remodeling and Repair Bone Remodeling Bone Repair A&P in the Real World Bone Marrow Transplantation A&P in the Real World Osteopetrosis A&P in the Real World Osteoporosis and Healthy Bones A&P in the Real World Achondroplasia A&P in the Real World Gigantism and Acromegaly 7 The Skeletal System 7.1 Overview of the Skeletal System Structure of the Skeleton and Skeletal Cartilages Bone Markings 7.2 The Skull Overview of Skull Structure Cavities of the Skull Fetal Skull Hyoid Bone 7.3 The Vertebral Column and Thoracic Cage Overview of the Vertebral Column Structure of the Vertebrae Intervertebral Discs The Thoracic Cage 7.4 Bones of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb The Pectoral Girdle The Humerus Bones of the Forearm: The Radius and Ulna Bones of the Wrist: Carpals Bones of the Hand and Fingers: Metacarpals and Phalanges 7.5 Bones of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb The Pelvis and Bones of the Pelvic Girdle The Femur and Patella Bones of the Leg: The Tibia and Fibula Bones of the Ankle and Foot: The Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges Study Boost Remembering Skull Bones and Vertebrae Study Boost Remembering Bones of the Arm and Leg Concept Boost Understanding How Skull Bones Relate to Each Other A&P in the Real World Forensic Skull Anatomy A&P in the Real World Vertebral Compression Fractures A&P in the Real World Herniated Disc A&P in the Real World the Sternum and CPR A&P in the Real World Wrist Fractures 8 Articulations 8.1 Classification of Joints Functional Classification Structural Classification 8.2 Structural Classification: Fibrous Joints Sutures Gomphoses Syndesmoses 8.3 Structural Classification: Cartilaginous Joints Synchondroses Symphyses 8.4 Structural Classification: Synovial Joints Structural Elements Stabilizing and Supportive Factors Arthritis 8.5 Function of Synovial Joints Functional Classes of Synovial Joints Movements at Synovial Joints Range of Motion 8.6 Types of Synovial Joints Plane Joint Hinge Joint Pivot Joint Condylar Joint Saddle Joint Ball-and-Socket Joint Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Joint Classifications and Stability versus Mobility Specific Hinge Joints: The Elbow and the Knee Specific Ball-and-Socket Joints: The Shoulder and the Hip Study Boost Keeping Synovial Joint Movements Straight Concept Boost Understanding Axes of Motion The Big Picture of Joint Classifications and Stability versus Mobility A&P in the Real World Epiphyseal Plate Fractures A&P in the Real World Bursitis A&P in the Real World Knee Injuries and the Unhappy Triad A&P in the Real World Shoulder Dislocations A&P in the Real World Hip Joint Replacement Surgery 9 The Muscular System 9.1 Overview of Skeletal Muscles Structure of a Skeletal Muscle Functions of Skeletal Muscles Studying Muscles 9.2 Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Vertebral Column Muscles of Facial Expression Extrinsic Eye Muscles Muscles of the Head and Neck Muscles of the Vertebral Column 9.3 Muscles of the Trunk and Pelvic Floor Muscles of the Trunk Muscles of the Pelvic Floor, Urogenital Diaphragm, and Perineum 9.4 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Muscles of the Shoulder and Arm Muscles of the Arm, Forearm, and Hand 9.5 Muscles of the Hip and Lower Limb Muscles That Move the Thigh and Knee Muscles That Move the Ankle and Foot 9.6 Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Muscle Movement Study Boost Remembering the Difference between Semitendinosus and Semimembranosus Concept Boost Understanding Lever Systems and Mechanical Advantage Concept Boost Sorting Out the Erector Spinae Concept Boost Demystifying Muscle Actions The Big Picture of Muscle Movement A&P in the Real World Muscle Knots A&P in the Real World Back Pain A&P in the Real World Kegel Exercises A&P in the Real World Rotator Cuff Injuries A&P in the Real World Calcaneal Tendon Injuries 10 Muscle Tissue and Physiology 10.1 Overview of Muscle Tissue Types of Muscle Tissue Properties of Muscle Cells Structure of Muscle Cells 10.2 Structure and Function of Skeletal Muscle Fibers Structure of the Skeletal Muscle Fiber Structure of the Myofibril Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Skeletal Muscle Structure Myofilament Arrangement and the Sarcomere The Sliding-Filament Mechanism of Contraction 10.3 Skeletal Muscle Fibers as Electrically Excitable Cells Membrane Potentials in Our Cells The Na+/K+ ATPase Pump and the Sodium and Potassium Ion Concentration Gradients Action Potentials 10.4 The Process of Skeletal Muscle Contraction and Relaxation The Neuromuscular Junction Skeletal Muscle Contraction Muscle Relaxation Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Skeletal Muscle Contraction 10.5 Energy Sources for Skeletal Muscle Immediate Sources of Energy for Muscle Contraction Glycolytic Energy Sources Oxidative Energy Sources 10.6 Muscle Tension at the Fiber Level Twitch Contraction Tension Production and the Timing and Frequency of Stimulation The Length-Tension Relationship Classes of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 10.7 Muscle Tension at the Organ Level Motor Units Types of Muscle Contractions 10.8 Skeletal Muscle Performance Changes Caused by Physical Training Muscular Fatigue Excess Postexercise Oxygen Consumption and the Recovery Period 10.9 Smooth and Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle Cardiac Muscle Study Boost Remembering the Bands of the Sarcomere Concept Boost Understanding How Events at the Myofilaments Produce Tension of a Whole Muscle The Big Picture of Levels of Organization within a Skeletal Muscle The Big Picture of Skeletal Muscle Contraction A&P in the Real World Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy A&P in the Real World Botulism and Botox A&P in the Real World Rigor Mortis A&P in the Real World Creatine Supplementation A&P in the Real World Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness Unit 3 Integration, Control, and Maintenance of Homeostasis 11 Introduction to the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue 11.1 Overview of the Nervous System Anatomical Divisions of the Nervous System Functional Divisions of the Nervous System 11.2 Nervous Tissue Neurons Neuroglia The Myelin Sheath Regeneration of Nervous Tissue 11.3 Electrophysiology of Neurons Principles of Electrophysiology Local Potentials Action Potentials The Refractory Period Local and Action Potentials Compared Propagation of Action Potentials Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Action Potentials 11.4 Neuronal Synapses Overview of Neuronal Synapses Electrical Synapses Chemical Synapses Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Chemical Synaptic Transmission Neural Integration: Summation of Stimuli 11.5 Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitter Receptors Major Neurotransmitters 11.6 Functional Groups of Neurons Neuronal Pools Neural Circuits Concept Boost How Do Positive Ions Create a Negative Resting Membrane Potential? Concept Boost How Does Myelin Insulate an Axon and Increase Its Speed of Propagation? Concept Boost How Summation Connects Local Potentials and Action Potentials The Big Picture of Action Potentials The Big Picture of Chemical Synaptic Transmission A&P in the Real World Poliovirus and Retrograde Axonal Transport A&P in the Real World Gliomas and Astrocytomas A&P in the Real World Local Anesthetic Drugs A&P in the Real World Multiple Sclerosis A&P in the Real World Arthropod Venom A&P in the Real World Psychiatric Disorders and Treatments A&P in the Real World Epileptic Seizures 12 The Central Nervous System 12.1 Overview of the Central Nervous System Overview of CNS Functions Basic Structure of the Brain and Spinal Cord Overview of CNS Development 12.2 The Brain The Cerebrum The Diencephalon The Cerebellum The Brainstem Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Major Brain Structures and Their Functions 12.3 Protection of the Brain The Cranial Meninges The Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid The Blood-Brain Barrier 12.4 The Spinal Cord Protection of the Spinal Cord External Spinal Cord Anatomy Internal Spinal Cord Anatomy 12.5 Sensation Part I: Role of the CNS in Sensation General Somatic Senses Introduction to the Special Senses 12.6 Movement Part I: Role of the CNS in Voluntary Movement Motor Pathways from the Brain through the Spinal Cord Role of the Brain in Voluntary Movement Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of CNS Control of Voluntary Movement 12.7 Homeostasis Part I: Role of the CNS in Maintenance of Homeostasis Homeostasis of Vital Functions Body Temperature and Feeding Sleep and Wakefulness 12.8 Higher Mental Functions Cognition and Language Learning and Memory Emotion Concept Boost Where Exactly Is the Blood-Brain Barrier? The Big Picture of Brain Anatomy The Big Picture of Major Brain Structures and Their Functions The Big Picture of CNS Control of Voluntary Movement A&P in the Real World Locked-In Syndrome A&P in the Real World Infectious Meningitis A&P in the Real World Epidural Anesthesia and Lumbar Punctures A&P in the Real World Phantom Limb Pain A&P in the Real World Parkinson’s Disease A&P in the Real World Fever A&P in the Real World States of Altered Consciousness Mimicking Sleep A&P in the Real World Dementia A&P in the Real World Aphasias 13 The Peripheral Nervous System 13.1 Overview of the Peripheral Nervous System Divisions of the PNS Overview of Peripheral Nerves and Associated Ganglia Functional Overview of the PNS 13.2 The Cranial Nerves The Sensory Cranial Nerves The Motor Cranial Nerves The Mixed Cranial Nerves 13.3 The Spinal Nerves Structure of Spinal Nerves and Spinal Nerve Plexuses Cervical Plexuses Brachial Plexuses Thoracic Spinal Nerves Lumbar Plexuses Sacral Plexuses Summary of the Distribution of Spinal Nerve Branches 13.4 Sensation Part II: Role of the PNS in Sensation From PNS to CNS: Sensory Reception Sensory Receptors Sensory Neurons Dermatomes and Referred Pain Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Detection and Perception of Somatic Sensation by the Nervous System 13.5 Movement Part II: Role of the PNS in Movement From CNS to PNS: Motor Output The Role of Lower Motor Neurons Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Control of Movement by the Nervous System 13.6 Reflex Arcs: Integration of Sensory and Motor Function Reflex Arcs The Role of Stretch Receptors in Skeletal Muscles Types of Reflexes Sensory and Motor Neuron Disorders Study Boost remembering the Cranial Nerves The Big Picture of Detection and Interpretation of Somatic Sensation by the Nervous System The Big Picture of Control of Movement by the Nervous System A&P in the Real World trigeminal Neuralgia A&P in the Real World Bell’s palsy A&P in the Real World a hiccups Cure That Really Works A&P in the Real World Capsaicin A&P in the Real World Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 14 The Autonomic Nervous System and Homeostasis 14.1 Overview of the Autonomic Nervous System Functions of the ANS and Visceral Reflex Arcs Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Divisions of the ANS 14.2 The Sympathetic Nervous System Gross and Microscopic Anatomy of the Sympathetic Nervous System Sympathetic Neurotransmitters and Receptors Effects of the Sympathetic Nervous System on Target Cells 14.3 The Parasympathetic Nervous System Gross and Microscopic Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Neurotransmitters and Receptors Effects of the Parasympathetic Nervous System on Target Cells 14.4 Homeostasis Part II: PNS Maintenance of Homeostasis Interactions of Autonomic Divisions Autonomic Tone Summary of Nervous System Control of Homeostasis A&P in the Real World the Sympathetic Nervous System and Weight Loss Supplements A&P in the Real World Side Effects of Anticholinergic Drugs A&P in the Real World Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome 15 The Special Senses 15.1 Comparison of General and Special Senses 15.2 Anatomy and Physiology of Smell Structures of Olfaction Physiology of Olfaction 15.3 Anatomy and Physiology of Taste Structures of Gustation: Taste Buds Physiology of Gustation 15.4 Anatomy of the Eye Accessory Structures of the Eye The Eyeball 15.5 Physiology of Vision Principles of Light Focusing Light on the Retina Photoreceptors and the Retina The Visual Pathway Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Vision 15.6 Anatomy of the Ear Outer Ear Middle Ear Inner Ear 15.7 Physiology of Hearing Principles of Sound Transmission of Sound to the Inner Ear Processing of Sound in the Inner Ear The Auditory Pathway Hearing Loss Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Hearing 15.8 Anatomy and Physiology of Vestibular Sensation The Utricle and Saccule The Semicircular Ducts The Vestibular Sensation Pathway 15.9 How the Special Senses Work Together Concept Boost Understanding Transduction Concept Boost How Inertia Influences Movement of the Otolithic Membrane and Endolymph The Big Picture of Vision The Big Picture of Hearing A&P in the Real World Anosmia A&P in the Real World are You a Supertaster? A&P in the Real World Cataracts A&P in the Real World Glaucoma A&P in the Real World Color Blindness A&P in the Real World Otitis Media A&P in the Real World Tinnitus A&P in the Real World Cochlear Implants A&P in the Real World Motion Sickness 16 The Endocrine System 16.1 Overview of the Endocrine System Comparison of the Endocrine and Nervous Systems Types of Chemical Signals Overview of the Endocrine Organs Hormones 16.2 The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland Structure of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland Hormones of the Hypothalamus and Posterior Pituitary Functional Relationship of the Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary 16.3 The Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands Structure of the Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands Thyroid Hormones: Metabolic Regulators Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin: Calcium Ion Homeostasis 16.4 The Adrenal Glands Structure of the Adrenal Glands Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla: Messengers of the Sympathetic Nervous System 16.5 The Endocrine Pancreas Structure of the Pancreas Hormones of the Endocrine Pancreas: Glucose Homeostasis Blood Glucose Regulation 16.6 Other Endocrine Glands and Hormone-Secreting Tissues The Pineal Gland: Melatonin The Thymus: Thymosin and Thymopoietin The Gonads: Sex Hormones Adipose Tissue: Leptin The Heart: Atrial Natriuretic Peptide The Kidneys: Erythropoietin 16.7 Three Examples of Endocrine Control of Physiological Variables Hormonal Control of Fluid Homeostasis Hormonal Control of Metabolic Homeostasis Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of the Hormonal Response to Stress Concept Boost Understanding the Relationship between Negative Feedback Loops and Thyroid Function The Big Picture of the Hormonal Response to Stress A&P in the Real World Paraneoplastic Syndrome A&P in the Real World Human Growth Hormone and the “Fountain of Youth” A&P in the Real World Calcitonin, Parathyroid Hormone, and Osteoporosis A&P in the Real World HPA Axis Suppression and Corticosteroid Therapy A&P in the Real World Leptin and Obesity Unit 4 Transport and Immunity 17 The Cardiovascular System I: The Heart 17.1 Overview of the Heart Location and Basic Structure of the Heart Functions of the Heart 17.2 Heart Anatomy and Blood Flow Pathway The Pericardium, Heart Wall, and Heart Skeleton The Coronary Circulation The Great Vessels, Chambers, and Valves of the Heart Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Blood Flow Through the Heart 17.3 Cardiac Muscle Tissue Anatomy and Electrophysiology Histology of Cardiac Muscle Tissue and Cells Electrophysiology of Cardiac Muscle Tissue The Electrocardiogram 17.4 Mechanical Physiology of the Heart: The Cardiac Cycle The Relationship between Pressure Changes, Blood Flow, and Valve Function Heart Sounds Events of the Cardiac Cycle Connecting the Electrical and Mechanical Events in the Heart 17.5 Cardiac Output and Regulation Determination of Cardiac Output Factors That Influence Stroke Volume Factors That Influence Heart Rate Regulation of Cardiac Output Heart Failure Study Boost Revisiting Electrophysiology Concept Boost Deconstructing the Wigger’s Diagram Concept Boost Understanding How Changes in Preload, Contractility, and Afterload Affect Stroke Volume The Big Picture of Blood Flow through the Heart A&P in the Real World Cardiac Tamponade A&P in the Real World Valvular Heart Diseases A&P in the Real World Dysrhythmias A&P in the Real World Heart Murmurs and Extra Heart Sounds A&P in the Real World Ventricular Hypertrophy 18 The Cardiovascular System II: The Blood Vessels 18.1 Overview of Arteries and Veins Structure and Function of Arteries and Veins Vascular Anastomoses 18.2 Physiology of Blood Flow Introduction to Hemodynamics Factors That Determine Blood Pressure Blood Pressure in Different Portions of the Circulation 18.3 Maintenance of Blood Pressure Short-Term Maintenance of Blood Pressure Long-Term Maintenance of Blood Pressure by the Endocrine and Urinary Systems Summary of Blood Pressure Maintenance Disorders of Blood Pressure: Hypertension and Hypotension 18.4 Capillaries and Tissue Perfusion Capillary Structure and Function Blood Flow through Capillary Beds Local Regulation of Tissue Perfusion Tissue Perfusion in Special Circuits 18.5 Capillary Pressures and Water Movement Pressures at Work in a Capillary Capillary Net Filtration Pressure Edema 18.6 Anatomy of the Systemic Arteries Arteries of the Head and Neck Arteries of the Thorax Arteries of the Abdominal Organs Arteries of the Upper Limb Arteries of the Lower Limb Pulse Points 18.7 Anatomy of the Systemic Veins Veins of the Head and Neck Veins of the Thorax and Abdomen Veins of the Upper Limb Veins of the Lower Limb 18.8 Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Blood Vessel Anatomy Concept Boost a Closer Look at Cross-Sectional Area and Velocity Concept Boost Understanding the Pulling Force of Osmotic Pressure The Big Picture of Systemic Blood Flow in the Body A&P in the Real World Atherosclerosis A&P in the Real World Varicose Veins A&P in the Real World Carotid Sinus Massage A&P in the Real World Cerebrovascular Accident A&P in the Real World Drugs and the Hepatic Portal System A&P in the Real World Vein Grafting 19 Blood 19.1 Overview of Blood Overview of Blood Functions Plasma 19.2 Erythrocytes and Oxygen Transport Erythrocyte Structure Lifespan of an Erythrocyte Anemia 19.3 Leukocytes and Immune Function Granulocytes Agranulocytes Leukocyte Formation: Leukopoiesis 19.4 Platelets Platelet Characteristics Platelet Formation 19.5 Hemostasis Hemostasis Part 1: Vascular Spasm Hemostasis Part 2: Platelet Plug Formation Hemostasis Part 3: Coagulation Hemostasis Part 4: Clot Retraction Hemostasis Part 5: Thrombolysis Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Hemostasis Regulation of Clotting Disorders of Clotting 19.6 Blood Typing and Matching Blood Typing Blood Transfusions Concept Boost Making Sense of the Coagulation Cascade Concept Boost What About the Donor’s Antibodies? The Big Picture of Hemostasis A&P in the Real World Cirrhosis A&P in the Real World Complete Blood Count A&P in the Real World Leukemias A&P in the Real World Anticlot Medications A&P in the Real World Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn, or Erythroblastosis Fetalis 20 The Lymphatic System and Immunity 20.1 Structure and Function of the Lymphatic System Functions of the Lymphatic System Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Circulation Lymphoid Tissues and Organs 20.2 Overview of the Immune System Types of Immunity Surface Barriers Overview of Cells and Proteins of the Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems How the Lymphatic and Immune Systems Work Together 20.3 Innate Immunity: Internal Defenses Cells of Innate Immunity Antimicrobial Proteins Inflammatory Response Fever 20.4 Adaptive Immunity: Cell-Mediated Immunity T Cell Response to Antigen Exposure Effects of T Cells Organ and Tissue Transplantation and Rejection 20.5 Adaptive Immunity: Antibody-Mediated Immunity Phase 1: B Cell Activation, Clonal Selection, and Differentiation Phase 2: Antibodies and Their Effects Phase 3: Immunological Memory 20.6 Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of the Immune Response Scenario 1: The Common Cold Scenario 2: Bacterial Infection Scenario 3: Cancer Pathogens That Evade the Immune Response 20.7 Disorders of the Immune System Hypersensitivity Disorders Immunodeficiency Disorders Autoimmune Disorders Concept Boost Why Do We Need Both Class I and Class II MHC Molecules? The Big Picture of the Immune Response to the Common Cold The Big Picture of the Immune Response to a Bacterial Infection The Big Picture of the Immune Response to Cancer Cells A&P in the Real World Lymphedema A&P in the Real World How Pathogens Can Evade Surface Barriers A&P in the Real World Anti-inflammatory Medications A&P in the Real World the Myth of Vaccines and Autism A&P in the Real World Complete Blood Count with Differential A&P in the Real World Treatments for Allergies A&P in the Real World the Tuberculin Skin Test 21 The Respiratory System 21.1 Overview of the Respiratory System Anatomy of the Respiratory System: An Overview Basic Functions of the Respiratory System 21.2 Anatomy of the Respiratory System The Nose and Nasal Cavity The Pharynx The Larynx The Trachea The Bronchial Tree Alveoli and the Respiratory Membrane The Lungs and Pleurae 21.3 Pulmonary Ventilation The Pressure-Volume Relationship The Process of Pulmonary Ventilation Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Pulmonary Ventilation Physical Factors Influencing Pulmonary Ventilation Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities 21.4 Gas Exchange The Behavior of Gases Pulmonary Gas Exchange Factors Affecting Efficiency of Pulmonary Gas Exchange Tissue Gas Exchange Factors Affecting Efficiency of Tissue Gas Exchange 21.5 Gas Transport through the Blood Oxygen Transport Carbon Dioxide Transport 21.6 Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Respiration 21.7 Neural Control of Ventilation Control of the Basic Pattern of Ventilation Control of the Rate and Depth of Ventilation 21.8 Diseases of the Respiratory System Restrictive Lung Diseases Obstructive Lung Diseases Concept Boost Making Sense of the Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve Concept Boost Relating Ventilation and Blood pH The Big Picture of Pulmonary Ventilation The Big Picture of Respiration A&P in the Real World Smoker’s Cough A&P in the Real World Tuberculosis A&P in the Real World Pleuritis and Pleural Friction Rub A&P in the Real World Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome A&P in the Real World Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy A&P in the Real World V/Q Mismatch A&P in the Real World Carbon Monoxide Poisoning A&P in the Real World High-Altitude Acclimatization Unit 5 Regulation of the Body’s Intake and Output 22 The Digestive System 22.1 Overview of the Digestive System Basic Digestive Functions and Processes Regulation of Motility by the Nervous and Endocrine Systems Histology of the Alimentary Canal Organization of the Abdominopelvic Digestive Organs 22.2 The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus Structure of the Oral Cavity The Teeth and Mastication The Tongue The Salivary Glands The Pharynx The Esophagus Swallowing 22.3 The Stomach Gross Anatomy of the Stomach Histology of the Stomach Functions of the Stomach 22.4 The Small Intestine Divisions of the Small Intestine Structure and Functions of the Small Intestine Motility of the Small Intestine 22.5 The Large Intestine Gross Anatomy of the Large Intestine Histology of the Large Intestine Bacteria in the Large Intestine Motility of the Large Intestine and Defecation 22.6 The Pancreas, Liver, and Gallbladder The Pancreas The Liver and Gallbladder 22.7 Nutrient Digestion and Absorption Overview of Digestion and Absorption Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates Digestion and Absorption of Proteins Digestion and Absorption of Lipids Digestion and Absorption of Nucleic Acids Absorption of Water, Electrolytes, and Vitamins 22.8 Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Digestion Concept Boost Understanding Absorption in the Alimentary Canal The Big Picture of Digestion A&P in the Real World Peritonitis A&P in the Real World Dental Caries A&P in the Real World Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) A&P in the Real World Vomiting A&P in the Real World Appendicitis A&P in the Real World Do We Really Need to “Detox”? A&P in the Real World Lactose Intolerance A&P in the Real World Intrinsic Factor and Vitamin B12 Deficiency 23 Metabolism and Nutrition 23.1 Overview of Metabolism and Nutrition Phases of Metabolism: Catabolism and Anabolism Energy Requirements of Metabolic Reactions Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) and Phosphorylation Nutrients and ATP Generation 23.2 Glucose Catabolism and ATP Synthesis Overview of Glucose Catabolism and ATP Synthesis Glucose Catabolism Part 1: Glycolysis Intermediate Step: The Fate of Pyruvate Glucose Catabolism Part 2: The Citric Acid Cycle ATP Synthesis: The Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Glucose Catabolism and ATP Synthesis 23.3 Fatty Acid and Amino Acid Catabolism Fatty Acid Catabolism Amino Acid Catabolism Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Nutrient Catabolism 23.4 Anabolic Pathways Glucose Anabolism Fatty Acid Anabolism Amino Acid Anabolism Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Nutrient Anabolism 23.5 Metabolic States and Regulation of Feeding Metabolic States Regulation of Feeding 23.6 The Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation Metabolic Rate Heat Exchange between the Body and the Environment Thermoregulation: Body Temperature Regulation 23.7 Nutrition and Body Mass Overview of Nutrients Macronutrients Micronutrients Structural Lipid: Cholesterol Diet and Body Mass Study Boost ATP Yield from Glucose Catabolism and ATP Synthesis Concept Boost How Electron Movement Can Be Harnessed to Do Work Concept Boost Why Do We Breathe? The Big Picture of Glucose Catabolism and Oxidative Phosphorylation The Big Picture of Nutrient Catabolism The Big Picture of Nutrient Anabolism A&P In the Real World Cyanide and the ETC A&P in the Real World Phenylketonuria A&P in the Real World Fatty Liver Disease A&P in the Real World Fasting and Protein Wasting A&P in the Real World “Rev” Your Metabolism A&P in the Real World Vitamin and Mineral Megadoses 24 The Urinary System 24.1 Overview of the Urinary System Overview of Urinary System Structures Overview of Kidney Function 24.2 Anatomy of the Kidneys External Anatomy of the Kidneys Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys Blood Supply of the Kidneys Microanatomy of the Kidney: The Nephron and Collecting System Types of Nephrons 24.3 Overview of Renal Physiology 24.4 Renal Physiology I: Glomerular Filtration The Filtration Membrane and the Filtrate The Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) Factors That Affect the Glomerular Filtration Rate Renal Failure 24.5 Renal Physiology II: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion Principles of Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion Reabsorption and Secretion in the Proximal Tubule Reabsorption in the Nephron Loop Reabsorption and Secretion in the Distal Tubule and Collecting System How Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion Maintain Acid-Base Balance Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion 24.6 Renal Physiology III: Regulation of Urine Concentration and Volume Osmolarity of the Filtrate Production of Dilute Urine The Countercurrent Mechanism and the Production of Concentrated Urine 24.7 Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Renal Physiology 24.8 Urine and Renal Clearance Urine Composition and Urinalysis Renal Clearance 24.9 Urine Transport, Storage, and Elimination Anatomy of the Urinary Tract Micturition Concept Boost how Changes in Arteriolar Diameter Influence the GFR Concept Boost Demystifying the Countercurrent Multiplier The Big Picture of Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion The Big Picture of Renal PPphysiology A&P in the Real World Nephrolithiasis A&P in the Real World Glomerulonephritis A&P in the Real World the RAAS and Hypertension A&P in the Real World Glycosuria A&P in the Real World SIADH A&P in the Real World Interstitial Cystitis 25 Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Homeostasis 25.1 Overview of Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Homeostasis Body Fluids Electrolytes Acids, Bases, and pH 25.2 Fluid Homeostasis Total Body Water Fluid Compartments: Intracellular and Extracellular Fluids Osmotic Movement of Water between Compartments Water Losses and Gains Hormonal Regulation of Fluid Balance Imbalances of Fluid Homeostasis 25.3 Electrolyte Homeostasis Sodium Ions Potassium Ions Calcium and Phosphate Ions Other Ions Critical to Human Physiology 25.4 Acid-Base Homeostasis Sources of Acids and Bases in the Body Chemical Buffer Systems Physiological Buffer Systems: Respiratory and Renal Regulation of Blood pH Acid-Base Imbalances 25.5 An Example of Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Homeostasis Concept Boost Why Does the Amount of Water in the Body Affect the Sodium Ion Concentration? Concept Boost How Can Respiratory Changes Compensate for Metabolic Acidosis? A&P in the Real World Intravenous Fluids A&P in the Real World Digoxin Toxicity and Hyperkalemia Unit 6 Continuity of Life 26 The Reproductive System 26.1 Overview of the Reproductive System and Meiosis Introduction to the Male and Female Reproductive Systems Overview of Meiosis Meiosis I (First Meiotic Division) Meiosis II (Second Meiotic Division) 26.2 Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System Testes Duct System Penis Accessory Sex Glands Semen Support Structures: Scrotum and Spermatic Cord 26.3 Physiology of the Male Reproductive System Male Sexual Response Effects of Testosterone on Other Body Systems Effects of Aging: Male Climacteric Spermatogenesis Sustentacular Cells Spermiogenesis Hormonal Control of Male Reproduction 26.4 Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System Ovaries Uterine Tubes Uterus Vagina Female External Genitalia Mammary Glands 26.5 Physiology of the Female Reproductive System Oogenesis Hormonal Control of Female Reproduction Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Hormonal Regulation and Female Reproductive Cycles Female Sexual Response Puberty and Menopause Effects of Aging: Menopause 26.6 Methods of Birth Control Behavioral Methods Barrier Methods Hormonal Methods Intrauterine Methods Permanent Methods 26.7 Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) Bacterial and Parasitic STIs Viral STIs Concept Boost Understanding Diploid and Haploid Cells Concept Boost Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis Concept Boost Spermatogenesis versus Oogenesis The Big Picture of Hormonal Regulation of the Ovarian and Uterine Cycles A&P in the Real World Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) and Prostate Cancer A&P in the Real World Male Infertility A&P in the Real World Erectile Dysfunction A&P in the Real World Breast Cancer A&P in the Real World Female Infertility A&P in the Real World Cervical Cancer 27 Development and Heredity 27.1 Overview of Human Development The Process of Prenatal Development The Postnatal Period 27.2 Pre-embryonic Period: Fertilization through Implantation (Weeks 1 and 2) Fertilization Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation Implantation Development of Extraembryonic Membranes 27.3 Embryonic Period: Week 3 through Week 8 Gastrulation and Formation of Germ Layers Organogenesis 27.4 Fetal Period: Week 9 until Birth (about Week 38) Placentation Fetal Development Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Prenatal Development 27.5 Pregnancy and Childbirth Maternal Changes during Pregnancy Childbirth (Parturition) 27.6 Postnatal Changes in the Newborn and Mother Changes in the Newborn Changes in the Mother 27.7 Heredity Introduction to Heredity Patterns of Inheritance The Big Picture of Prenatal Development A&P in the Real World Assisted Reproductive Technology A&P in the Real World Ectopic Pregnancy A&P in the Real World Placenta Previa A&P in the Real World Premature Infants A&P in the Real World Pre-eclampsia A&P in the Real World Patent Ductus Arteriosus and Patent Foramen Ovale A&P in the Real World Prenatal and Newborn Genetic Screening APPENDIX A: Answers to Apply What You Learned and Assess What You Learned APPENDIX B: The Metric System APPENDIX C: Laboratory Reference Values Credits Glossary A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z