Greek Democracy and the Junta: Regime Crisis and the Failed Transition of 1973

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More than half a century after the imposition of the dictatorship of the Colonels in Greece, a number of questions related to its nature, development and demise remains understudied and feebly answered. One of the most interesting -yet understudied- incidents of the dictatorship is its ill-fated self-transformation attempt into some form of civilian rule in 1973: the so-called ‘Markezinis experiment’, after the politician who assumed the task of heading the transition government and lead to elections. The whole venture lasted a mere eight weeks, faced heavy opposition from both the opposition elites and the civil society and eventually collapsed by a military hard-liners’ coup. The story of this failed attempt raises a series of questions: what was the nature of the dictatorship of the Colonels, and why did it take it six years to seek some form of civilianisation? Were the intentions of Papadopoulos and Markezinis sincere, and were the politicians of the opposition right to refuse to legitimise the ‘experiment’? What was the Polytechnic students’ uprising role in the demise of the ‘experiment’? Was there an American reaction, and was it the main reason for the collapse of the transition, as Markezinis claimed? The book seeks to address the above questions, and argues that the failure of the ‘Markezinis experiment’ paved the way for the actual transition of 1974 as it happened. The research is supported by foreign (British and American) archival resources, as well as by private archives and personal interviews. The book concludes by briefly seeking to trace some potential alternative paths for the failed self- transformation attempt, and by accounting for the long-term consequences of the failure of the ‘Markezinis experiment’. Cover page Halftitle page Title page Copyright page Contents Acknowledgements Chronology of Events Introduction: Why did the Junta not end in 1973? Disdain and oblivion: The ‘Markezinis experiment’ as a point of historical and political reference The ‘Markezinis experiment’ in historical and comparative perspective 1 From ‘Difficult Democracy’ to the ‘Wrong Coup’: Greece 1949–67 Politics and institutions from 1949 to 1961: The ‘difficult democracy’ Frustrated attempts at democratic consolidation, 1963–5 Crisis and breakdown of democracy in Greece, 1965–7 The armed forces and the path to the ‘wrong coup’ Factionalism, conspiracies and the path to military intervention The ‘wrong coup’ of 21 April 1967 Conclusion. Was the dictatorship of the Colonels inevitable? 2 ‘Greece of Christian Greeks’: The Dictatorship of 21 April 1967 The nature of the dictatorial regime and the aims of its leaders Developments and faction struggles within the regime, 1967–72 The regime and the political elites, 1967–72 The regime and civil society 3 The Early Liberalization, January–September 1973 The student demonstrations and their aftermath The failed naval conspiracy From Dictadura to Dictablanda: The new constitution and the plebiscite Enter Markezinis 4 The ‘Unfinished Revolution’ and the ‘Castrated Parliament’: The Elites and the ‘Experiment’ ‘Why is the Revolution finished?’ The ‘experiment’ and the military The ‘castrated parliament’: The ‘experiment’ and the opposition elites The tactics of the elites and counter-elites in the course of the ‘experiment’ Chronicle of a coup foretold: Back to dictadura A short-lived dictadura : The aftermath An opportunity missed or a ruse that failed? 5 Fortuna and the ‘Experiment’: Civil Society and the Polytechnic Events Summer–early autumn 1973: ‘Hard to believe, but they’re retreating . . .’ The Polytechnic events: The students and the people The political implications of the events: The regime and the opposition elites 6 The Americans Yet Again? The International Factor and the ‘Experiment’ The 1967 ‘wrong coup’ and the US The regime and the international factor: European isolation and US support Cyprus and the dictatorship The Markezinis government and the international factor The Yom Kippur War and the ‘experiment’ 7 Concluding Thoughts: The ‘Markezinis Experiment’ between Oblivion and Myth What was the ‘Markezinis experiment’ and why did it fail? A counter-factual venture: What if the ‘Markezinis experiment’ had succeeded? Oblivion and a posteriori interpretation: The legacy of the ‘Markezinis experiment’ Notes Bibliography Index