Bio-based Flame-Retardant Technology for Polymeric Materials

Description

Bio-Based Flame Retardants for Polymeric Materials provides a comprehensive overview of flame retardants derived directly and indirectly from plant sources, drawing on cutting-edge research and covering preparation methods, testing and evaluation techniques, enhanced properties, and end applications. Chapters introduce bio-based materials in the context of additives for flame retardancy, explaining fundamentals and testing methods and analyzing synthetic approaches and the potential advantages of pursuing a bio-based approach. This is followed by detailed coverage of bio-based retardants, with each chapter covering a specific source and guiding the reader systematically through preparation techniques, evaluation methods, properties and applications. Throughout the book, the latest progress in the field is critically reviewed, and there is a continual emphasis on novel approaches to achieve enhanced properties and performant materials. This is an essential guide for all those with an interest in innovative, sustainable flame retardant additives for polymeric materials, including researchers, scientists, advanced students, and more. Front matter Copyright Contributors Preface Introduction to flame retardants for polymeric materials Introduction Commercial flame retardants Halogenated flame retardants Organophosphorus flame retardants Inorganic flame retardants Nitrogen-based flame retardants Silicon-based flame retardants Intumescent systems Bio-sourced flame retardants Tannins Lignin Chitin Chitosan Starch Phytic acid DNA Vegetable oil Mechanism of bio-based flame retardants Conclusion References Synthetic approaches to bio-based flame-retardant polymeric materials Introduction Synthesis of bio-based flame-retardant epoxy resins Synthesis of bio-based flame-retardant benzoxazine resins Synthesis of bio-based flame-retardant polyurethanes Summary Acknowledgments References Fire testing methods of bio-based flame-retardant polymeric materials Introduction Laboratory-scale flammability/combustion/thermal behavior tests Microscale combustion calorimetry (MCC) Cone calorimetry UL 94 Limiting oxygen index (LOI) Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) National Bureau of Standards (NBS) smoke chamber Correlations between flammability tests MCC/cone calorimetry correlations MCC/TGA correlations Correlations between MCC, cone calorimetry, UL 94, and LOI Analytical testing techniques Gas-phase analysis Thermogravimetric analysis-Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (TGA-FTIR) Pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) Solid-phase/residue analysis Spectroscopic techniques Infrared spectroscopy (IR) Raman spectroscopy Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) Elemental analysis X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) Scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) Microscopy/imaging techniques Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Optical microscopy Microcomputerized tomography (μCT or microCT) Commercial product testing/standards Cable and wire flame-spread tests Large-scale fire/flammability tests Miscellaneous polymer tests Summary References Cellulose-based flame retardants for polymeric materials Introduction Synthesis and properties Synthesis and structure of cellulose Biosynthesis Polymerization Types Properties Molecular weight Solubility Stability Mechanism of thermal degradation Application Global markets Economics of flame-retardant polymers Commercial applications Construction and automotive industrial sector Flammable material coatings Packaging and barrier material Paper Electronics Textiles Flame retardancy Fabrication methods Vacuum filtered Drying Freeze-drying Aerogel Layer by layer Cross-linked Sol-gel Acid hydrolysis Survey of published data Flame-retardancy trends Pyrolysis of cellulose Below 300C Over 300C Combustion gases Char formation mechanism Flame retardancy of applying salts Conclusion References Lignin and its derivatives: Potential feedstock for renewable flame-retardant polymers Introduction Thermal properties and analysis methods for flame retardancy of lignin Lignin-based flame retardants Epoxy-lignin Polybutylene succinate (PBS)-lignin PU-lignin PP-lignin PLA-lignin Vanillin-based flame retardants Eugenol-based flame retardants Guaiacol-based flame retardants Challenges and future perspective Conclusions References Cardanol-based flame-retardant polymeric materials Introduction Functionalization of cardanol Cardanol-derived intrinsically flame-retardant polymers Cardanol-based epoxy resins Cardanol-based benzoxazines Cardanol-based novolac resins Cardanol-based polyurethanes Cardanol-based polyacrylates Others Cardanol-derived flame-retardant additives for polymers Organic cardanol-derived flame-retardant additives Inorganic-organic hybrid cardanol-derived flame-retardant additives Summary and perspectives References Chitosan-based flame-retardant polymeric materials and their applications Introduction The use of chitosan and its derivatives as flame retardants for bulk polymer systems The use of chitosan and its derivatives as flame retardants for textiles The use of chitosan and its derivatives as flame retardants for flexible polyurethane foams Conclusions and future perspectives Acknowledgments References Development of novel flame-retardant polymers based on eugenol Introduction Sourcing/extraction/toxicity Origins Production Toxicity Classical applications Eugenol functionalization and flame-retardant properties Route 1-Eugenol as monomer for epoxy resin Route 2-Eugenol as monomer for polybenzoxazine Route 3-Modification of eugenol with FR groups to improve the flame retardancy of epoxy resins and polybenzoxazines Route 4-Eugenol for other polymers Route 5-Eugenol for FR additives A brief comparison between various bio-based building blocks Conclusions References Flame retardants from starch: Phosphorus derivatives of isosorbide Introduction Results and discussion Conclusions References Flame-retardant polymeric materials from renewable vanillin Introduction Synthesis of vanillin Flame-retardant vanillin-based epoxy thermosets Conclusions and future perspectives References Furan-based flame-retardant polymeric materials Introduction Origins and synthesis of different bio-based furan monomers Halogen- and phosphorus-free furan-based flame retardants Phosphorus-containing furan-based flame retardants Inorganic furan-based flame retardants Flame retardancy performance summary of furan-based flame-retardant polymeric materials Conclusion and prospects References Advances in alginate-based flame-retardant polymeric materials Introduction Sources of alginates Algal sources Bacterial sources Physical and chemical properties of alginates Stability: Solid alginates Stability: Alginate solutions Solubility Physical factors Chemical factors Viscosity Hydrogels Diffusion gelation Internal gelation or in situ gelation Cooling gelation Alginates as a flame retardant Mechanism of action Methods for the development of alginate-based flame retardants Layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly In situ and sol-gel method Freeze-drying method Applications of alginate-based flame-retardant polymers Alginates as an additive Polyamides Polyesters Polyurethane Polyolefin Alginates as a reactant Conclusions References Phenolic-based phosphorus flame retardants for polymeric materials Introduction Results and discussion Conclusions References P-N-modified starch: A polymeric flame retardant for wood-based materials Introduction Structure-property relationships and modes of action of SPCs Synthesis and chemical structure of SPCs Thermal properties and modes of action of SPCs Thermal and fire properties of SPC-treated materials Wood veneer and solid wood Waterborne wood coatings Veneered lightweight composites Wood fiber-based materials Conclusions and perspectives References Development of natural fiber-reinforced flame-retardant polymer composites Introduction Flame retardants Flammability of polymers Types of natural fibers Properties of natural fibers Modifications of natural fibers Physical treatment methods Chemical treatment methods Development of natural fiber-reinforced flame-retardant polymer composites Conclusions References Vegetable oil-based flame-retardant polymeric materials Introduction Vegetable oils Flame-retardant mechanism Vegetable oil-based flame-retardant polyurethane foam Additive flame retardants Reactive flame retardants Vegetable oil-based flame-retardant phenolic foam Vegetable oil-based flame-retardant epoxy resin Other materials Summary and perspectives References Progress in flame-retardant sustainable fiber/polymer composites Introduction Types and properties of natural fibers Types of natural fibers The chemical composition and mechanical properties of natural fibers Properties of polymers Natural fiber-reinforced flame-retardant polymer composites Flax fibers Flax fiber/poly(lactic acid) composites Flax fiber/polyester resin composites Jute fibers Jute fiber/poly(lactic acid) composites Jute fiber/polypropylene composites Hemp fibers Hemp fiber/high-density polyethylene composites Hemp fiber/polypropylene composites Hemp fiber/polyurethane composites Kenaf fibers Kenaf fiber/polypropylene composites Kenaf fiber/epoxy composites Sisal fibers Sisal fiber/polypropylene composites Sisal fiber/epoxy composites Sisal fiber/high-density polyethylene composites Bamboo fibers Bamboo fiber/epoxy composites Bamboo fiber/polyurethane composites Other natural fibers Conclusions and future perspectives Acknowledgments References Perspectives and challenges in using bio-based flame retardants Perspectives on bio-based flame retardants Nonedible bio-based feedstocks Fire performance criteria Life cycle assessment Environmental and health impact Design of less hazardous bio-based flame retardants Sustainable phosphorus-based flame retardants Flame-retardant surface treatments Intrinsically flame-retardant bio-based epoxy thermosets Flame retardancy of bio-based polyurethanes Economic efficiency of bio-based flame retardants Challenges in using bio-based flame retardants Design of a ``good´´ bio-based flame retardant Improvement of the flame retardancy of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites Construction of fire-retardant coatings via layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly Summary References Index