Plant Signaling Molecules: Role and Regulation under Stressful Environments

Description

Plant Signaling Molecule: Role and Regulation under Stressful Environments explores tolerance mechanisms mediated by signaling molecules in plants for achieving sustainability under changing environmental conditions. Including a wide range of potential molecules, from primary to secondary metabolites, the book presents the status and future prospects of the role and regulation of signaling molecules at physiological, biochemical, molecular and structural level under abiotic stress tolerance. This book is designed to enhance the mechanistic understanding of signaling molecules and will be an important resource for plant biologists in developing stress tolerant crops to achieve sustainability under changing environmental conditions. Cover Related Titles Plant Signaling Molecules: Role and Regulation Under Stressful Environments Copyright List of Contributors 1 Physiological Responses and Mechanisms of Signaling Molecules in Plants Stress Tolerance 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Growth and Development 1.2.1 Plant Response to Salinity: Signaling Pathway at Tissue and Organ Level 1.2.2 Temporal Signature and Related Cell Response Mechanisms 1.3 Leaf Gaseous Exchanges 1.3.1 Stomatal Conductance and Water Relations 1.3.2 Photosynthesis References 2 Stress Responsive Signaling Molecules and Genes Under Stressful Environments in Plants 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Signaling Molecules Under Stress Conditions 2.3 Signaling Molecules and Plant Responses Under Combined Stress Conditions 2.4 DNA Damage of Plants Under Concurrent of Abiotic and Biotic Stress Combinations 2.5 Genomic and Biochemical Approaches for Plants Under Combined Stresses 2.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects Acknowledgement References 3 Engineering Signaling Molecules to Improve Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Crop Plants 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Stress Signal Sensors 3.3 Salt Stress Sensors 3.4 Osmotic Stress Sensors 3.5 ABA Signaling Pathway 3.6 Calcium Sensors and Signaling 3.7 ROS Signaling 3.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives Acknowledgement References Further Reading 4 Genetic Engineering/Genome Editing Approaches to Modulate Signaling Processes in Abiotic Stress Tolerance 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Plant Response to Abiotic Stress in Developing Tolerance 4.2.1 Late Embryogenesis Abundant Proteins 4.2.2 Production of Methyglyoxyl Under Abiotic Stress 4.2.3 Hybrid Proline Rich Proteins (HyPRPs) and Abiotic Stress Responses 4.2.4 Role of Protein Kinases in Response to Abiotic Stress 4.2.5 Cross-Talk Signaling of Jasmonate and Ethylene Biosynthesis in Abiotic Stress Tolerance 4.3 Genetic Engineering Approaches to Modulate Abiotic Stress Signaling Process in Crop Plants 4.3.1 Transgenic Approaches 4.3.1.1 Genetic Engineering for Biosynthesis of Osmoprotectants and LEA 4.3.1.2 Aquaporin Genes Associated With Abiotic Stress Tolerance 4.3.1.3 Genetic Engineering of Molecular Chaperones, HSPs, and Plant Transcription Factors for Abiotic Stress Tolerance 4.3.1.4 Epigenetic Regulation of Abiotic Stress Tolerance 4.3.1.5 Functional Role of Ubiquitination Encoding Proteins in Abiotic Stress Tolerance 4.3.1.6 Genetic Engineering of Helicases in Plant Abiotic Stress Tolerance 4.3.1.7 Genetic Engineering of Small RNAs for Abiotic Stress Responses 4.4 Genome Editing Approaches to Modulate Abiotic Stress Signaling Processes in Crop Plants 4.4.1 Zinc Finger Nucleases 4.4.2 Transcription Activator Like Effector Nucleases 4.4.3 CRISPR-Cas9 Genome Editing 4.4.3.1 Application of CRISPR-Cas9 in Plant Abiotic Stress Tolerance 4.4.4 CRISPR-Cpf1 4.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects References 5 Measurement of Signaling Molecules Calcium Ion, Reactive Sulfur Species, Reactive Carbonyl Species, Reactive Nitrogen Spe... 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Section 1: Ca2+ Quantification 5.2.1 Method 1: MTB Method 5.2.2 Method 2: Fura-2 AM Fluorescence Method 5.3 Section 2: H2S Quantification 5.3.1 Method 1: DTNB Method 5.3.2 Method 2: MB Method 5.3.3 Method 3: WSP-1 Fluorescence Method 5.4 Section 3: Methylglyoxal Quantification 5.4.1 Method 1: DAB Method 5.4.2 Method 2: DNP Method 5.4.3 Method 3: NAC Method 5.4.4 Method 4: DAF-2 and DAR-1 Fluorescence Methods 5.5 Section 4: NO Quantification 5.5.1 Method 1: Griess Reagent Method 5.5.2 Method 2: DAF-FMDA Fluorescence Method 5.6 Section 5: H2O2 Quantification 5.6.1 Method 1: KI Method 5.6.2 Method 2: Ti(SO4)2 Method 5.6.3 Method 3: XO Method 5.6.4 Method 4: ABTS Method 5.6.5 Method 5: DCHBS-AAP Method 5.6.5.1 In Vivo Method 5.6.5.2 In Vitro Method 5.6.6 Method 6: DAB Method 5.6.7 Method 7: DCFH2-DA and DCF Fluorescence Methods 5.6.7.1 In Vivo Method: (DCFH2-DA Method) 5.6.7.2 In Vitro Method: (DCF Method) 5.6.8 Method 8: AR and AUR Fluorescence Methods 5.6.9 Method 9: BES-H2O2-Ac and BES-H2O2 Fluorescence Method 5.7 Section 6: Superoxide Radical Measurement 5.7.1 Method 1: NBT Method 5.7.1.1 Spectrophotometric Method 5.7.1.2 Histochemical Staining Method 5.7.2 Method 2: XTT Method 5.7.3 Method 3: BESSo-AM and BESSo Fluorescence Methods 5.8 Section 7: HO• Quantification 5.8.1 Method 1: Benzoate Method 5.8.2 Method 2: 2-deoxy-d-Ribose Method Acknowledgments References Further Reading 6 Drought Tolerance in Plants: Molecular Mechanism and Regulation of Signaling Molecules 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Role of Osmoprotectant Regulatory Genes in Drought Stress 6.2.1 Proline 6.2.2 Polyols/Sugars 6.2.3 Glycine Betaine 6.2.4 Osmotin 6.2.5 Dehydrins 6.3 Redox Regulatory Machinery of Plants During Drought Conditions 6.3.1 Enzymatic ROS Regulation During Drought 6.3.2 Nonenzymatic ROS Regulation During Drought 6.4 Hormonal Regulation of Drought Tolerance in Plants 6.4.1 Auxin 6.4.2 Cytokinins 6.4.3 Gibberellins 6.4.4 Abscisic Acid 6.4.5 Ethylene 6.4.6 Brassinosteroids 6.4.7 Salicylic Acid 6.4.8 Jasmonic Acid 6.5 Molecular Mechanism of Regulatory Elements in Drought Stress 6.5.1 MYB Transcription Factor Family 6.5.2 Ethylene Response Element-Binding Factors (AP2/ERF) Family 6.5.3 Basic Leucine Zipper Transcription Family 6.5.4 Zn-Finger Transcription Factor Family 6.5.5 NAC Transcription Factor Family 6.6 Conclusion and Further Prospects References Further Reading 7 Crop Improvement of Cereals Through Manipulation of Signaling Pathways in Response to Drought Stress 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Transcription Factors Associated With Signaling Mechanism 7.2.1 Dehydration Responsive Element Binding Proteins 7.2.2 MYB Transcription Factor 7.2.3 NAC Transcription Factor 7.2.4 Basic Leucine Zipper Protein Transcription Factor 7.3 Genetic Engineering of Kinases for Drought and Salinity Tolerance 7.3.1 Protein Kinases 7.3.2 Receptor-Like Kinases 7.4 Modulation of Key Genes Involved in Phytohormone Signaling 7.5 Engineering of Osmoregulatory Genes 7.6 Reactive Oxygen Species Signaling During Drought and Salinity Stress 7.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects Acknowledgments References 8 Role and Regulation of ROS and Antioxidants as Signaling Molecules in Response to Abiotic Stresses 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Reactive Oxygen Species as Signaling Molecules 8.3 Reactive Oxygen Species Involved in Plant Defense 8.3.1 Process of Reactive Oxygen Species Signaling in Plants 8.4 Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Damage to Macromolecules 8.4.1 Lipids 8.4.2 Proteins 8.4.3 DNA 8.5 Reactive Oxygen Species Production and Intracellular Protein Oxidation 8.5.1 Reactive Oxygen Species-Induced Posttranslational Modifications 8.5.1.1 S-Nitrosylation 8.5.1.2 Protein Carbonylation 8.5.1.3 Sulhydryl Oxidations of Met and Cys (Sulfonylation) 8.5.1.4 Sulfur Glutathionylation 8.5.1.5 Acetylation 8.6 Role of Antioxidants and Its Signaling in Abiotic Stress 8.7 Conclusion References Further Reading 9 Role and Regulation of Plants Phenolics in Abiotic Stress Tolerance: An Overview 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Structure and Classification 9.3 Biosynthesis of Polyphenols 9.4 Phenolics and Abiotic Stress Tolerance 9.4.1 Phenolics as Ultraviolet Sunscreens 9.4.2 Plant Phenolics and Their Role in Heavy Metal Stress 9.4.3 Plant Phenolics and Their Role in Drought Stress 9.4.4 Plant Phenolics and Their Role in Cold Stress 9.4.5 Plant Phenolics and Their Role in Nutrient Stress 9.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Further Reading 10 Bioactive Molecules as Regulatory Signals in Plant Responses to Abiotic Stresses 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The Role of Ascorbic Acid, Carotenoids, and Flavonoids in Stress Signaling 10.3 Amino Acids and Derivates Under Stress 10.4 Poly- and Oligosaccharides and Plant Responses 10.5 Nitrate Accumulation and Stress Regulation 10.6 Melatonin Bioactive Molecule in the Regulation of Abiotic Stress 10.6.1 Melatonin Biosynthesis and Its Level Under Stressful Conditions 10.6.2 Priming Plants With Melatonin Against Abiotic Stresses 10.7 Conclusion References Further Reading 11 Biochemical and Molecular Regulation of Phenylpropanoids Pathway Under Abiotic Stresses 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Abiotic Stress and Physiological Changes in the Phenylpropanoid Pathway 11.3 Water Stress 11.4 Cold Stress 11.5 Salinity Stress and Phenylpropanoids Accumulation 11.6 Light Stress 11.7 Senescence 11.8 Nitrogen Deficiency and Phenylpropanoids 11.9 Molecular Changes of the Genes Involved in the Phenylpropanoid Pathways 11.9.1 Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase and Chalcone Synthase Transcriptional Induction 11.9.2 Anthocyanidin Synthase Transcriptional Changes 11.10 Regulation and Phenylpropanoids Pathway 11.11 Conclusion References Further Reading 12 Role and Regulation of Glucose as a Signal Molecule to Salt Stress 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Salt Stress Effects on Plants 12.3 Glucose Sensing, Transport, and Signaling in Plants 12.4 Role of Glucose in Salt Stress Responses 12.5 Glucose and Phytohormones Under Salt Stress 12.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives Acknowledgments References 13 Role of Sugars in Abiotic Stress Signaling in Plants 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Sugars as Signaling Molecules 13.1.1.1 Glucose 13.1.1.2 Sucrose 13.1.1.3 Oligogalacturonides 13.2 Kinases as Enzyme Sensors 13.3 Sugar Signaling at Gene Level 13.4 Sugar Signaling and Plant Metabolism 13.5 Sugar Signaling and Phytohormones Conclusion References Further Reading 14 Methylglyoxal: A Novel Signaling Molecule in Plant Responses to Abiotic Stresses 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Generation of MG in Plants 14.2.1 Nonenzymatic Pathway: A Key Player 14.2.2 Enzymatic Pathways: A Secondary Way 14.3 Elimination of MG in Plants 14.3.1 Glyoxalase System: The First Defense Line 14.3.2 Nonglyoxalase System: A Minor Route 14.4 MG Signaling Triggered by Environmental Stress in Plants 14.5 Abiotic Stress Tolerance Related to MG in Plants 14.5.1 Salt Tolerance 14.5.2 Drought Tolerance 14.5.3 Heavy Metal Stress Tolerance 14.5.4 Heat Tolerance 14.5.5 Chilling Tolerance 14.6 Abiotic Stress Tolerance Improved by Overexpressing Glyoxalase Genes 14.7 MG Priming-Induced Abiotic Tolerance 14.8 Signaling Crosstalk Between MG and Ca2+, ROS, NO, and H2S 14.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects Acknowledgements References 15 Role of Trehalose and Regulation of its Levels as a Signal Molecule to Abiotic Stresses in Plants 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Trehalose in Plants 15.3 Trehalose as a Protectant Against Abiotic Stresses 15.4 Trehalose-6-P in Plant Metabolic and Physiological Activities 15.5 Sugar Signaling Systems in Plants 15.6 Trehalose/Trehalose-6-P/SnRK1 System 15.7 Trehalose/Trehalose-6-P/SnRK1 System in Specific Stress Responses: Hypoxia and Cold 15.7.1 Hypoxia 15.7.2 Cold 15.8 Concluding Remarks References Further Reading 16 Sugar Regulates Plant Growth and Development Under In Vitro Conditions 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Role of Sugars in Plant Growth and Development Under In Vitro Conditions 16.3 Sugar Signaling: Physiological, Molecular, and Genetic Approaches in Plants 16.4 Physiological Approaches of Sugar Signaling in Plants 16.5 Molecular and Genetic Approaches of Sugar Regulation in Plants 16.6 Importance of Sugar Interaction With Phytohormones in Regulation of Growth and Development Under In Vitro Condition 16.7 Function of Phytohormones Under In Vitro Conditions 16.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Further Reading 17 Role of Mineral Nutrients in Abiotic Stress Tolerance: Revisiting the Associated Signaling Mechanisms 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Mineral Nutrients and Stress Tolerance 17.2.1 Nitrogen 17.2.2 Sulfur 17.2.3 Potassium 17.3 Phosphorous 17.4 Calcium 17.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects Acknowledgments References Further Reading 18 Sulfur Availability Potentiates Phytohormones-Mediated Action in Plants 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Overview of Sulfur Assimilation and its Role in Plant Metabolism 18.2.1 Sulfur Assimilation 18.2.2 Sulfur Transport Mechanism in Plants 18.2.3 Role of Sulfur and its Compounds in Plant Metabolism 18.3 Crosstalk Between Sulfur and Phytohormones 18.3.1 Auxin 18.3.2 Cytokinin 18.3.3 Abscisic Acid 18.3.4 Gibberellic Acid 18.3.5 Ethylene 18.3.6 Jasmonic Acid 18.3.7 Salicylic Acid 18.3.8 Nitric Oxide 18.3.9 Brassinosteroids 18.4 Conclusion References Further Reading 19 Role and Regulation of Plant Hormones as a Signal Molecule in Response to Abiotic Stresses 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Perception and Transduction of Signals 19.3 Regulation of Various Abiotic Stresses by Plant Hormones 19.3.1 Water Stress (Deficit or Flooding) 19.3.1.1 Role of Abscisic Acid Under Water Stress 19.3.1.2 Role of Jasmonic Acid Under Water Stress 19.3.1.3 Role of Ethylene Under Water Stress 19.3.1.4 Role of Auxin and Cytokinin Under Water Stress 19.3.1.5 Role of Brassinosteroids Under Water Stress 19.3.2 Temperature Stress 19.3.3 Salinity Stress 19.3.4 Metal Stress 19.3.5 UV Radiation 19.3.6 Crosstalk of Different Hormones 19.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Further Reading 20 Role and Regulation of Auxin Signaling in Abiotic Stress Tolerance 20.1 Introduction 20.1.1 Auxin Signaling in Plants 20.1.2 Auxin Signaling Under Abiotic Stresses 20.1.2.1 Drought Stress 20.1.2.2 Salinity Stress 20.1.2.3 Temperature Stress 20.1.2.4 Nutrient Deficiency Stress 20.1.2.5 Heavy Metal Stress 20.1.3 Crosstalk of Auxin With Other Hormones 20.2 Conclusion Acknowledgements References 21 The Regulatory Signaling of Gibberellin Metabolism and Its Crosstalk With Phytohormones in Response to Plant Abiotic Str... 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Gibberellic Acid Metabolism in Plants 21.3 Regulatory Signaling of Gibberellic Acids During Abiotic Stresses 21.4 The Signaling Crosstalks Between Gibberellic Acids and Related Phytohormones 21.5 Gibberellic Acids in Plant Abiotic Stress: A Recent Update 21.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives Acknowledgements References 22 Abscisic Acid, a Principal Regulator of Plant Abiotic Stress Responses 22.1 Introduction 22.2 ABA Biosynthesis 22.3 Catabolism of ABA 22.4 ABA Signaling Pathway 22.5 ABA Receptors 22.6 Protein Phosphatase 2C 22.7 SNF1-Related Protein Kinase 2 (SnRK2) 22.8 ABA-Dependent Gene Expression 22.9 The Role of ABA in Abiotic Stress Signaling 22.10 Conclusion Acknowledgment References Further Reading 23 Salicylic Acid–Mediated Defense Mechanisms to Abiotic Stress Tolerance 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Biosynthetic Pathway and Modifications of Salicylic Acid 23.3 Role of Salicylic Acid in Plant Growth and Development 23.4 Salicylic Acid-Mediated Defense Mechanisms to Abiotic Stress 23.4.1 Salicylic Acid Involvement in Modulation of Redox Homeostasis 23.4.2 Salicylic Acid Interaction With Heat Shock Proteins, Reactive Oxygen Species and Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 23.4.3 Interaction of Salicylic Acid With Mineral Nutrients and Osmoprotectant 23.5 Crosstalk of Salicylic Acid With Other Phytohormones Under Abiotic Stress 23.5.1 Salicylic Acid and Auxins 23.5.2 Salicylic Acid and Abscisic Acid 23.5.3 Salicylic Acid and Gibberellic Acid 23.6 Interaction and Involvement of DELLA With SA-GA Crosstalk Under Stress 23.6.1 Salicylic Acid and Ethylene 23.6.2 Salicylic Acid and Jasmonic Acid 23.6.3 Salicylic Acid and Brassinosteroids 23.6.4 Salicylic Acid and Nitric Oxide 23.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects Acknowledgements References Further Reading 24 Role of Methyl Jasmonates in Salt Stress Tolerance in Crop Plants 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Jasmonate Biosynthesis 24.3 Jasmonate Signaling 24.4 Methyl Jasmonates: Multifunctional Roles in Abiotic Stress Tolerance 24.5 Effect of Salt Stress on Plants 24.5.1 Jasmonates Counteract Salinity Stress 24.5.2 Salt Stress Response Mediated by JA Signaling 24.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References Further Reading 25 Insights Into the Nitric Oxide Mediated Stress Tolerance in Plants 25.1 Introduction 25.1.1 Nitric Oxide Function in Plants 25.1.2 NO Synthesis in Plants 25.1.2.1 Nitric Oxide Synthase (NOS) 25.1.2.2 Nitrate Reductase (NR) 25.1.3 NO Signaling in Plants 25.1.4 Modulation of Endogenous Nitric Oxide Levels in Plants 25.2 NO in Plant Stress Responses 25.2.1 NO in Drought Stress Tolerance 25.2.2 NO in Plant Salt Stress Tolerance 25.2.3 NO and Chilling Stress Tolerance in Plants 25.2.4 NO and High Temperature Stress Tolerance in Plants 25.2.5 NO and Heavy Metal Stress Tolerance in Plants 25.2.6 NO in Ozone Stress Tolerance 25.2.7 NO in UV-B Tolerance of Plants 25.2.8 NO in Wounding Stress Tolerance 25.2.9 NO in Flooding Stress Tolerance 25.3 NO and Phytohormones Crosstalk in Abiotic Stress Tolerance 25.4 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives Acknowledgements References Further Reading 26 Brassinosteroid Signaling and Complex Interplay of ROS, NADPH Oxidase, and MAPK Mediated Biotic and Abiotic Stress Accli... 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Brassinosteroids 26.3 Brassinosteroid Signaling in Plants 26.4 Transcription Factors Involved in BR Signaling 26.5 Role of RD26 in BR Signaling 26.6 BR Mediated Defense Signaling 26.7 BR Mediated ROS Signaling and Its Role in Plant Defense 26.8 Conclusion References Further Reading 27 Role and Regulation of Osmolytes and ABA Interaction in Salt and Drought Stress Tolerance 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Abscisic Acid-Sensing Mechanism of Plants and Downstream Events 27.3 Role of Abscisic Acid in Osmolyte Biosynthesis 27.3.1 Abscisic Acid–Dependent and –Independent Signaling Pathways and Proline Biosynthesis 27.3.2 Role of Hormones in the Regulation of P5CS and Proline Synthesis 27.4 Regulation of Proline Dehydrogenase 27.4.1 Glycine Betaine Biosynthesis and Its Modulation by Abscisic Acid 27.5 Signaling Molecules and Osmolyte Synthesis 27.6 Functions of Osmolytes During Abiotic Stress 27.6.1 Osmolyte Accumulation and Osmotic Adjustment During Stress 27.6.2 Osmolytes and Protection of Photosynthetic Machinery During Abiotic Stress 27.6.3 Osmolyte Accumulation and Oxidative Stress 27.6.4 Osmolytes and Amelioration of NaCl- and Metal-Induced K+ Efflux Under Stress 27.6.5 Osmolytes and Their Metal Chelation Properties During Metal Stress 27.6.6 Role of Osmolytes in Membrane and Native Protein Structure Stabilizations 27.6.7 Osmolytes as Sources of Energy and Carbon Reserve During and After the Release of Stress 27.7 Osmolytes and Signaling Processes 27.7.1 Proline and Signaling Processes 27.7.2 Proline Metabolism and Signaling Pathways in Plant Senescence 27.7.3 Osmolytes as Sensing Compounds and/or Growth Regulators 27.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects Acknowledgments References Further Reading 28 Regulatory Role of Proline in Heat Stress Tolerance: Modulation by Salicylic Acid 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Aftermaths of Heat Stress 28.3 Proline in Heat Tolerance 28.4 Phytohormones in Heat Tolerance 28.5 Role of Salicyclic Acid in Heat Tolerance 28.6 Interaction Between Salicyclic Acid, Ethylene, and Abscisic Acid for Heat Tolerance 28.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Further Reading 29 Osmolyte Diversity, Distribution, and Their Biosynthetic Pathways 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Diversity and Distribution of Osmolytes in Different Plant Species 29.2.1 What Are Osmolytes or Osmoprotectants 29.2.2 Why Are Osmolytes Compatible? 29.2.3 Diversity and Distribution of Osmolytes 29.2.3.1 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds 29.2.3.2 Tertiary Sulfonium Compounds 29.2.3.3 Sugars and Sugar Alcohols 29.3 Biosynthetic Pathways of Proline and Its Derivatives 29.3.1 Biosynthesis of Proline 29.3.2 Biosynthesis of Proline Derivatives 29.4 Biosynthetic Pathways of Glycine Betaine and Its Derivatives 29.4.1 Biosynthesis of Glycine Betaine 29.4.2 Biosynthesis of Glycine Betaine Derivatives 29.5 Biosynthetic Pathways of Trehalose and Sugar Alcohols 29.5.1 Biosynthesis of Trehalose (Sugar) 29.5.2 Biosynthesis of Sugar Alcohols 29.6 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Further Reading 30 Role and Regulation of Osmolytes as Signaling Molecules to Abiotic Stress Tolerance 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Osmolyte Mediated Abiotic Stress Responses 30.3 Biosynthesis, Accumulation, and Regulation of Osmolytes in Response to Abiotic Stress 30.3.1 Proline 30.3.2 Glycine Betaine 30.3.3 Polyamines 30.3.4 Sugars and Sugar Alcohols 30.3.4.1 Trehalose 30.3.4.2 Fructans 30.3.4.3 Mannitol 30.3.4.4 Sorbitol 30.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects Acknowledgment References 31 Proteomics Insights Into Salt Stress Signaling in Plants 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Proteomics: Edge Over Other Technologies 31.3 Technical Advances in Proteomics 31.3.1 Global Proteome Analysis 31.3.1.1 Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (2DGE) 31.3.1.2 Three-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (3DGE) 31.3.1.3 Isotope-Coded Affinity Tag (ICAT) 31.3.1.4 Stable Isotope Labeling by Amino Acids in Cell Culture (SILAC) 31.3.1.5 Isobaric Tag for Relative and Absolute Quantification (iTRAQ) 31.3.1.6 Multidimensional Protein Identification Technology (MudPIT) 31.3.1.7 Deep Proteome Analysis 31.3.2 Targeted Proteome Analysis 31.3.2.1 Gel-Based Targeted Proteomics 31.3.2.2 Affinity and Reactive Chemistry-Based Proteomics 31.3.2.3 Mass Spectrometry–Based Targeted Proteomics 31.4 Salt Stress in Plants 31.5 Response of Plants Towards Salt Stress 31.5.1 Osmotic Stress 31.5.2 Ionic Stress 31.6 Salt Stress Signaling Pathways 31.6.1 Salt Overly Sensitive (SOS) Signaling Pathway 31.6.2 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) Signaling Pathway 31.6.3 ABA-Signaling Pathway 31.6.4 Ca2+/Calmodulin (CaM) Signaling Pathway 31.6.5 Phospholipid Signaling Pathway 31.6.6 ROS Signaling Pathway 31.6.7 Jasmonic Acid (JA), Ethylene (ET), and Salicylic Acid (SA) Signaling Pathways 31.7 Proteomics Approach in Understanding Salt Stress Signaling Pathways 31.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References Further Reading 32 Heat Shock Proteins (Hsps) Mediated Signalling Pathways During Abiotic Stress Conditions 32.1 Introduction 32.2 A General Account on Heat Shock Proteins 32.2.1 Small Heat Shock Proteins 32.2.1.1 Chaperonins 32.2.1.2 Heat Shock Protein 70 32.2.1.3 Heat Shock Protein 90 32.2.1.4 Heat Shock Protein 100 32.2.1.5 Heat Shock Transcription Factors 32.3 Heat Shock Protein Induction Phenomena in Plants 32.4 Abiotic Stresses Induce the Heat Shock Protein–Mediated Signaling Pathways 32.4.1 Reactive Oxygen Species 32.4.2 Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases 32.4.3 Calcium and Calcium-Regulated Proteins 32.5 Crosstalk Between Reactive Oxygen Species, Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases Cascades, Ca+2 and Heat Shock Factor/Heat... 32.6 Genetic Engineering of Heat Shock Proteins Signaling Molecules 32.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives Acknowledgments References 33 C4/CAM Facultative Photosynthesis as a Means to Improve Plant Sustainable Productivity Under Abiotic-Stressed Conditions... 33.1 Initial Considerations 33.2 C4 and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism: Similarities and Differences 33.2.1 Defining C4 and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism 33.2.2 Modules Common to Both C4 and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Plants 33.2.2.1 Carboxylation and Decarboxylation Modules 33.2.2.2 Anatomy Module 33.2.3 Exclusive Modules: Transfer Acid Generation and Stomatal Control 33.3 Environmental Cues Controlling C4 and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism 33.3.1 Modulation of C4 by Environmental Cues 33.3.2 Modulation of Crassulacean Acid Metabolism by Environmental Cues 33.4 Stress Signaling Networks Controlling C4 and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism 33.5 C4/Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Compatibility 33.6 Engineering C4 and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism: Challenges and Possibilities 33.6.1 Engineering Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Into C4 33.6.2 Parts List for Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Into C4 33.7 Concluding Remarks Acknowledgments References Further Reading 34 Protein Kinases and Phosphatases in Stress Transduction: Role in Crop Improvement 34.1 Introduction 34.2 Receptors Like Kinases 34.3 Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases 34.3.1 MAPKKKs 34.3.2 MAPKKs 34.3.3 MAPKs 34.4 Calcium Kinases 34.4.1 Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinases 34.4.2 Calcineurin B&e_02011;Like Proteins and CBL-Interacting Protein Kinases 34.4.3 CDPK-Regulated Protein Kinases 34.5 Sucrose Nonfermenting 1-Related Protein Kinases 34.6 Diacylglycerol Kinases 34.7 Histidine Kinases 34.8 Genomics Efforts in Plant Protein Kinase Towards Crop Improvement 34.9 Conclusions References Further Reading 35 Nanoparticles and Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants: Synthesis, Action, and Signaling Mechanisms 35.1 Introduction 35.2 Plant and Abiotic Stress 35.3 Mode of Action of Nanomaterials Under Abiotic Stresses 35.3.1 Drought Stress 35.3.2 Salinity Stress 35.3.3 Chilling Stress 35.3.4 Heat Stress 35.3.5 Heavy-Metal Stress 35.4 Signaling Mechanism of Nanoparticles During Abiotic Stress Conditions 35.5 Conclusion References Further Reading Index Back Cover