Science and the Production of Ignorance: When the Quest for Knowledge Is Thwarted

Description

An introduction to the new area of ignorance studies that examines how science produces ignorance--both actively and passively, intentionally and unintentionally. We may think of science as our foremost producer of knowledge, but for the past decade, science has also been studied as an important source of ignorance. The historian of science Robert Proctor has coined the term agnotology to refer to the study of ignorance, and much of the ignorance studied in this new area is produced by science. Whether an active or passive construct, intended or unintended, this ignorance is, in Proctor's words, "made, maintained, and manipulated" by science. This volume examines forms of scientific ignorance and their consequences. A dialogue between Proctor and Peter Galison offers historical context, presenting the concerns and motivations of pioneers in the field. Essays by leading historians and philosophers of science examine the active construction of ignorance by biased design and interpretation of experiments and empirical studies, as seen in the "false advertising" by climate change deniers; the "virtuous" construction of ignorance--for example, by curtailing research on race- and gender-related cognitive differences; and ignorance as the unintended by-product of choices made in the research process, when rules, incentives, and methods encourage an emphasis on the beneficial and commercial effects of industrial chemicals, and when certain concepts and even certain groups' interests are inaccessible in a given conceptual framework. Contributors Martin Carrier, Carl F. Cranor, Peter Galison, Paul Hoyningen-Huene, Philip Kitcher, Janet Kourany, Hugh Lacey, Robert Proctor, Londa Schiebinger, Miriam Solomon, Torsten Wilholt Contents Acknowledgments I: IGNORANCE: A NEW FOCUS OF INQUIRY 1: Introducing the Issues 1. Agnotology: The Study of Ignorance as Socially Constructed 2. The Relation between Agnotology and Philosophy 3. Ignorance as Bliss 4. Ignorance as Passive Construction 5. A Preview of What Is to Come 6. The Role of Philosophy in Exploring Agnotology References 2: Agnotology in Action: A Dialogue 1. Ignorance as a Topic of Investigation 2. The Ignorance Produced by Industrial Science 3. Ignorance as a By-product of the Media and Publishing 4. The Ignorance Produced by Governments 5. Virtuous Ignorance 6. Final Thoughts References II: IGNORANCE AS ACTIVE CONSTRUCTION For Harmful Ends 3: Agnotological Challenges: How to Capture the Production of Ignorance in Science 1. Agnotology and Scientific Method 2. Characterizing Agnotological Maneuvers 3. The Impact-Centered Approach: Agnotology as the Shift of Inductive Risks 4. Agnotology and False Advertising 5. Generalizing the False Advertising Account 6. Identifying and Coping with Agnotological Machinations 7. Conclusion References 4: Can We Sustain Democracy and the Planet Too? 1. Introduction 2. The Climate Consensus 3. Failure to Act 4. Conceptions of Democracy 5. Free Debate and the Millian Arena 6. It Gets Worse 7. Hope? References For Virtuous Ends 5: Might Scientific Ignorance Be Virtuous? The Case of Cognitive Differences Research 1. The Right to Freedom of Scientific Research 2. A Case Study: The Right to Equality versus the Right to Freedom of Research 3. Past Precedents 4. The Third Precedent 5. How Much Freedom Do Scientists Really Need or Deserve? References 6: Agnotology, Hermeneutical Injustice, and Scientific Pluralism: The Case of Asperger Syndrome 1. The Canonical Examples 2. The Case of Asperger Syndrome 3. Pluralism 4. Is the Case of Asperger Syndrome Unusual? References III: IGNORANCE AS PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION Focus-Generated Ignorance 7: How the Law Promotes Ignorance: The Case of Industrial Chemicals and Their Risks 1. Hypothetical Story of an Industrial Chemical: Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers 2. Laws Governing Chemical Creations 3. Back to PBDE Flame Retardants 4. Agnotology 5. The Failed Promise of Quick Risk Assessments 6. Reenter Agnotology 7. Overcoming Ignorance about Toxicants and a Way Forward References Framework-Centered Ignorance 8: On Knowing What One Does Not Know: Ignorance and the Aims of Research 1. Introduction 2. Conscious Ignorance 3. Conditions of Conscious Ignorance 4. Wilholt, Philosopher of Great Ignorance 5. Bromberger, Great Philosopher of Ignorance 6. Beyond Normal: Kinds of Opaque Ignorance 7. Ignorance: A Construction Manual References 9: Strong Incommensurability and Deeply Opaque Ignorance 1. Kinds of Ignorance 2. Incommensurability 3. Strong Incommensurability and Deeply Opaque Ignorance 4. Conclusion References Methodology-Created Ignorance 10: A View of Scientific Methodology as a Source of Ignorance in Controversies about Genetically Engineered Crops 1. Agnotology Mechanisms 2. What Is in Dispute? 3. Risks 4. Alternatives 5. Concluding Remarks References Community-Based Ignorance 11: Expanding the Agnotological Toolbox: Methods of Sex and Gender Analysis 1. Unconscious Gender Bias in Science and Technology 2. Gendered Innovations 3. Rethinking Research Priorities and Outcomes: HIV Microbicides 4. Rethinking Concepts and Theories: Genetics of Sex Determination 5. Formulating a Research Question: Heart Disease in Women 6. Analyzing Sex: Stem Cells 7. Analyzing Gender: Machine Translation 8. Analyzing How Sex and Gender Interact: Assistive Technologies for the Elderly 9. Rethinking Standards and Reference Models: Human Thorax Model 10. Analyzing Factors Intersecting with Sex and Gender: Osteoporosis Research in Men 11. Participatory Research and Design: Water Infrastructure 12. Conclusion: Policy Interventions References Contributors Index