The Cambridge Dictionary of English Grammar

Description

Cover Half-title Title Copyright Contents How to use this book Lookup Within entries Type contrasts In-text references Introduction A A A/AN ablative absolute ablative case absolute 1 Absolute adjective: three applications of the term 2 Absolute verb 3 Absolute pronoun 4 Absolute construction accusative acronym active voice adjacency pair adjectival clause adjectival group adjectival phrase (AdjP, AP) adjective 1 Types of adjective 2 Sequences of adjectives 3 Gradability and degrees of comparison 4 Nongradable adjectives 5 Attributive, predicative, and postpositive adjectives 6 Complementation of adjectives AdjP adjunct 1 A subclass of adverb (in Quirk et al. 1985 2 Any adverb or other syntactic unit serving as an adverbial constituent of a clause 3 An obligatory adverbial constituent of a clause 4 An optional adverbial constituent of a clause adposition adverb 1 Forms of adverbs 2 Semantic types of adverbs 3 Syntactic types of adverbs 4 Degrees of comparison for adverbs adverb phrase adverbial 1 Multiple applications of adverbial 2 Adverbial as a syntactic unit 3 Subtypes of adverbial 4 Mobility of adverbials within the clause adverbial clause 1 Types of adverbial clause 2 Nonfinite adverbial clauses 3 Adverbial clauses of comparison and comparative clauses adverbial group adverbial phrase AdvP affix 1 Affixes: prefixes and suffixes 2 The grammatical meanings of affixes 3 The semantics of affixes affixation AFTER agent agentive suffix agentless passive agreement 1 Agreement and concord 2 Three types of agreement 3 Pronoun agreement: personal pronouns 4 Agreement with demonstrative, relative/interrogative, and indefinite pronouns 5 Verb agreement with collective nouns, bipartites, and summation plurals 6 Agreement with proper nouns and proper names 7 Agreement with open-class quantifiers and other numerical phrases 8 Agreement with coordinated and complex subjects alethic ALL allograph 1 Variant form of individual grapheme 2 Alternative orthographic symbol for phoneme 3 Spelling variants in base form of word 4 Allographic variation associated with inflected forms allomorph 1 Alternative form of a morpheme 2 Phonological variant of a morpheme 3 Grammatical variant of a morpheme 4 Orthographic variant of a morpheme alphabetism alternant ambitransitive anacoluthon analogy anaphora ancestor AND ANOTHER antecedent antonymy ANY ANYBODY, ANYONE, and ANYTHING AP apodosis apostrophe (1) 1 Apostrophes in syntax 2 Apostrophes as markers of omission 3 Apostrophes as markers of possession, and other relationships 4 Apostrophes on personal names ending in -s 5 Apostrophes on the wane apostrophe (2) apposition 1 Full apposition: the core criteria 2 Nonrestrictive and restrictive apposition 3 Partial apposition argument of the verb article AS aspect aspectuality assertive assimilation of loanwords asyndeton and asyndetic AT auxiliary verb 1 Auxiliary verbs as a subclass 2 Primary auxiliaries: BE, HAVE, DO 3 Modal auxiliaries 4 Periphrastic modals 5 Informal modal auxiliaries 6 NICE properties 7 Structural analysis: dependent auxiliary vs. catenative avalent B backchannel backformation backshift bahuvrihi compound bare infinitive bare relative base base form BE BECAUSE BEFORE beneficiary BETWEEN YOU AND I bigram bimorphemic bipartite noun blending and blends BOTH bound base bound morpheme and free morpheme brackets branching bullets BUT BY 1 BY as a preposition 2 BY-phrase in passive constructions 3 BY in multiword verbs 4 BY as a prepositional adverb C CAN capitalization capitonym case 1 Grammatical case 2 Case in modern English nouns 3 Case and English word order 4 Case in English pronouns case grammar cataphora and cataphoric catenative verb 1 Catenative verbs and semi-auxiliaries 2 Complementation for catenatives 3 Meanings expressed by catenatives: Types I, II, and III 4 Catenatives and auxiliary verbs causative verb central determiner Chomsky circumstance classical compound classifier clausal order clause 1 Clause patterns in declarative clauses 2 Variation of standard clause patterns 3 Obligatory and optional elements of the finite clause 4 Types of finite clause 5 Nonfinite clauses clause complex clefting clipping clitic closed class closed condition closed question closure cognate object cognitive grammar cohesion cohyponym collective noun colligation collocation 1 Collocation as the juxtaposition of certain words 2 Co-occurrence relationships among words in text colon combining form 1 Combining forms in neoclassical compounds 2 Combining forms and affixes 3 Dual roles for English combining forms comma 1 The comma as a syntactic separator 2 Paired commas 3 Sets of commas and the “serial” comma 4 The comma splice 5 Reduced use of commas command comment comment clause common common case common noun comparative comparative clause 1 Comparative clauses in traditional and modern grammar 2 The comparative element 3 Ellipsis and reduction in comparative clauses 4 Equal and unequal comparisons 5 Correlative comparative construction complement 1 A structure required to complete a phrase or clause 2 Complement of the clausal subject or object 3 Any obligatory postverbal element of a clause 4 Nonfinite complement for catenative verbs 5 Obligatory structure following prepositional verbs 6 Non-subject participants in the clause complement clause 1 Complement clauses to complete a matrix clause 2 Verb-complement clauses and noun-complement clause 3 Extraposition of complement clauses 4 Finite and nonfinite complement clauses and controlling verbs complementarity complementizer 1 Complementizers as a special set of subordinators 2 Zero complementizer complex catenative complex conjunction complex determiner complex preposition complex sentence complex transitivity complex word compound sentence compound verb compound word 1 Compounds as lexical units 2 Compounds and inflections 3 Compound nouns (or noun compounds) 4 Compound adjectives (or adjective compounds) 5 Compound verbs 6 Compound adverbs concord concrete noun conditional conjugation conjunct conjunction 1 From traditional word class to coordinators and subordinators 2 Polysemous and ambivalent conjunctions 3 Zero conjunction 4 Marginal and incipient conjunctions 5 Correlative conjunctions conjunction group connective adverb connotation and denotation constituent order construction grammar (CxG) constructional grammar contact clause content clause content word continuous contraction (1) contraction (2) control verb controlling verb convergent converse conversion 1 Process of conversion 2 Alternative nomenclature 3 Direction of conversion 4 Conversion within the same word class coordination 1 The syntax of coordination 2 Semantic aspects of coordination 3 Unitary or segregated coordinates with AND 4 Disjunctive coordination with OR 5 Grammatical case of pronouns in coordinated phra 6 Ellipsis in coordination 7 Syndetic, asyndetic, and polysyndetic coordination coordinator copula copular verb coreference correlative comparative clause correlative conjunction COS or ´COS COULD count noun, mass noun, and countability 1 Count and mass nouns 2 Countability cute quotes CxG D dangling participle dash 1 Terminology relating to dashes 2 Single dash to show break in syntax 3 En dash/rule or long hyphen to span separate words 4 Paired dashes dative dative shift daughter node de-adjectival declarative declension deep case deep structure defining relative clause definite article degree adverb degrees of comparison deixis and deictic deletion rule delexical verb demonstrative adverb demonstrative pronoun denominal denotation deontic dependent dependent clause derivation 1 Derivation by changing the form of an existing word 2 Additions to the word´s meaning or grammatical scope 3 Derivation by compounding and blends 4 Acronyms and initialisms derivational affix derivational morphology descendant determinative determinative phrase determiner 1 Determiners as a word class 2 Syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic functions 3 Sequences of determiners 4 Determiners and countability 5 Semideterminers 6 Complex determiners and open-class quantifiers deverbal diminutive direct and indirect speech direct condition direct object direct question discourse marker disjunct disjunction dislocation distributive ditransitive DO dominance double comparative double genitive double negative double superlative dual dual gender dummy subject durative dyadic predicate dynamic modality dynamic verb E EACH -ed -ed participle EITHER ellipsis 1 Ellipsis in coordination 2 Ellipsis in comparative clauses 3 Ellipsis in dialogue em dash or em rule embedded clause emergent grammar empty en dash or en rule -en participle enclitic end weight ending sentence with a preposition ENOUGH epenthetic epistemic epithet 1 A conventional adjective/adjectival phrase attached to a name 2 The adjective(s) used as premodifiers of a noun eponym equi-verb -er ergative 1 Ergative languages 2 Ergative case 3 Ergative verbs in English -est EVERY EVERYBODY, EVERYONE, and EVERYTHING exclamation exclamation mark or exclamation point exclamative exclamatory existential THERE experiential function extraction extraposition extrinsic modality F fact clause FEWER and LESS finite finite clause finite verb first person pronoun FOR formal agreement frame semantics free morpheme free relative FROM fronting full stop 1 End of sentence punctuation 2 Other sentence-final punctuators 3 Full stop as punctuator of abbreviated words 4 When the full stop as word punctuator occurs sentence-finally full verb functional grammar fused head fused participle fused relative clause futurate future G gap and gapping GB gender 1 Grammatical gender 2 Gender in English grammar 3 Gender-specific words 4 Common gender generalized phrase structure grammar (GPSG) generative grammar generic pronoun genitive 1 Genitive case and the apostrophe 2 Genitive of possession and other relationships 3 Group genitive 4 Subjective and objective genitive 5 Elliptical and independent genitives 6 Local genitive 7 Postgenitive gerund gerund-participle 1 Gerund-participles and the verbal–nominal scale 2 Syntactic roles of the gerund-participle 3 Semantic–syntactic interplay with the gerund-participle gerundive GET: get/got/gotten 1 GET as a lexical verb 2 GET as a phrasal/prepositional verb 3 GET as a copular verb 4 GET as a causative verb 5 GET-passives 6 Have got to 7 GOT and GOTTEN 8 GOTTA given and new goal GONNA GOTTA government-binding theory (GB) GPSG gradability grade gradience grammar grammatical metaphor grammaticalization grapheme group group genitive group noun GROUP OF H HALF Halliday HAVE 1 The forms of HAVE 2 HAVE as an auxiliary verb 3 HAVE as a quasi-modal verb 4 HAVE as a lexical verb HE and HIM 1 HE/HIM and gender 2 HE/HIM and case assignment in syntax 3 Generic HE HE and/or SHE head and headedness 1 Heads and noun phrase heads 2 Adjectival and adverbial phrase heads 3 Verb and prepositional phrase heads 4 Headedness and agreement head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG) headless relative hedging device HENCE HER HERS heteronymy HIS historic present holonymy homograph homonym homophone HOWEVER HPSG hypercorrection hypernym and hyperonym hyphen 1 Hyphens in word punctuation 2 Hard hyphen and soft hyphen 3 Hyphen and en dash hypocoristic hyponymy hypotaxis hypothetical I I and ME 1 Standard uses of I/ME as first person singular pronoun 2 Idiomatic use of I in non-subject role 3 Informal uses of ME for I 4 Use of ME for the determiner MY 5 ME used for unstressed pronunciation of MY ideational function idiom IF IF-clause illocutionary force immediate constituent analysis (IC) imperative imperfect imperfective impossible condition imprecation IN incipient modal inclination indefinite article indefinite pronoun indent independent pronoun indicative indirect condition indirect object indirect question indirect speech inferable infinitive inflection inflectional affix inflectional morphology information focus 1 Information delivery via clause structure 2 Mobilizing adverbs 3 Topicalizing of nonfinite clauses 4 Fronting of the clausal object 5 Clefting and left dislocation 6 Focusing adverbs -ing form 1 Verbal suffix for present participle and adjective 2 Nominal suffix for verbal noun 3 Verbal-nominal scale 4 Nomenclature for -ing forms initialism insert integrated relative clause intensifier and downtoner intensive verb interjection interpersonal function interrogative interrogative adverb interrogative pronoun intransitive preposition intransitive verb intrinsic modality invariant tag inversion 1 Subject–verb inversion in direct questions 2 Inversion following fronted adverb 3 Inversion in hypothetical conditions 4 Subject-verb inversion with quotation irregular verb 1 Irregular and regular verbs 2 Verbs with the same form for past and present 3 Verbs that simply use -t for the past 4 Verbs that change only the stem vowel for the past 5 Verbs that change the stem vowel and add t or d for the past 6 Verbs that change the stem vowel and one or more consonantsbefore adding t 7 Verbs with a changed vowel for past tense, but the same for presenttense and past participle 8 Verbs with different vowels, for the present, past tense, and pastparticiple 9 Verbs with three different stem vowels, plus -(e)n for the past participle 10 Verbs using combinations of vowel changes and orthographicadjustments, plus -en to distinguish present, past tense, and pastparticiple 11 Verbs using suppletion for their past forms 12 Unstable irregular verbs 13 Irregularization of regular verbs IT and ITS 1 IT as the neuter third person singular pronoun 2 Nonreferential uses of IT 3 ITS as the possessive determiner and pronoun IT-cleft sentence ITS or IT´S J, K joint coordination jussive kernel L LAY and LIE left dislocation left-branching left- and right-branching sentences lemma LESS 1 LESS and LITTLE 2 LESS vs. FEWER as determiner 3 LESS as comparative adjective LESSER LET-imperative lexeme lexical-functional grammar (LFG) lexical morphology lexical priming lexical verb lexicogrammar lexicon lexis LFG licensing LIE light verb LIKE line space linking adverb linking verb LITTLE 1 LITTLE as adjective and paucal quantifier 2 Gradability of LITTLE, and degrees of comparison 3 LITTLE/A LITTLE as a determiner with noncountable nouns 4 Pronoun (LITTLE and A LITTLE ) 5 Adverb (minimizer and time adjunct) logical function long hyphen long passive LOT OF, LOTS (OF), A LOT, and LOTTA -ly 1 Adverbs formed with -ly 2 Adjectives ending in -ly M main clause main verb mandative construction mandative subjunctive MANY, MUCH, and MORE marked form, marking, and markedness 1 Linguistic form that contrasts with the base form of the word 2 Linguistic form whose usage diverges from a common counterpart mass noun matrix clause MAY MAY HAVE or MIGHT HAVE ME mediopassive meronymy metafunction of language middle construction middle intransitive middle voice MIGHT MINE modality and modal verb 1 Modality, mood, and modal verbs 2 Parameters of modality 3 Modal verbs and their individual meanings 4 Modal verbs in their linguistic contexts 5 Modal paraphrases: adverbs, comment clauses modalization modifier modulation monomorphemic monotransitive monovalent mood morpheme morphology 1 Morphological structure and derivational processes 2 Roots, stems, and classical combining forms 3 Suffixes: derivational and inflectional 4 Morphology and the syntax of the clause MOST mother node movement rule MUCH multal multiple negation multiword lexical unit MUST mutual information MY MYSELF N name narrative present natural gender near negative negation 1 Negation and polarity 2 Exponents of negation: negative words and affixes 3 NOT vs. NO negation 4 Scope of the negative 5 Negative inversion negative negative concord negative raising negator NEITHER neoclassical compound nesting nexus nexus question NICE NO NO ONE NOBODY node nominal nominal clause nominal group nominal phrase nominal relative clause nominal and verbal style nominalization nominative nonaffirmative nonassertive noncount noun nondefining relative clause NONE nonfinite clause nonfinite verb non-numerical quantifier nonrestrictive relative clause non-subject case nonterminal node NO-ONE NOR NOT NOTHING notional agreement or notional concord noun 1 Concrete and abstract nouns 2 Common and proper nouns 3 The grammar of common nouns 4 Count/countable nouns and noncountable/mass nouns 5 Collective nouns 6 Plural-only nouns 7 Compound nouns noun clause noun complement clause noun phrase (NP) 1 The noun phrase and its head 2 Complex premodification in the noun phrase 3 Noun phrase structure and countability 4 Noun phrases as clause constituents noun-complement clause NP number NUMBER OF number transparency O object object complement object raising object territory objective case oblique 1 The inflected case associated with non-subject roles 2 The relationship of the following NP to a prepositional verb 3 Prepositional phrases and other constituents oblique stroke OF 1 Prepositional phrases with OF 2 OF in partitive and quantitative constructions 3 Appositional use of OF 4 OF in genitive paraphrases 5 Double genitive construction ON ONE 1 ONE as a cardinal number 2 ONE as a substitute word 3 ONE as a generic pronoun ONE IN/OUT OF and ONE OF THOSE THAT/WHO/WHICH one-place predicate (1-place predicate) onomatopoeia open condition open question open word class open-class quantifier operator 1 “Operator” defined in general terms 2 Auxiliary verbs as operators 3 Operators in tag questions and declarative tags 4 Operators and inversion optative OR orthography OUR OURS override reflexive P paradigm 1 Paradigm as a set of inflectional forms 2 Paradigm and syntagm 3 Paradigm as a particular framework for theoretical analysis parataxis parentheses parenthesis parse tree part of speech participant particle partitive 1 Partitive constructions and partitive nouns 2 Quantitative and qualitative constructions 3 Partitive genitive passive voice 1 Voice: passive vs. active 2 Agentless passive 3 GET-passive 4 Prepositional passive past participle past perfect past tense patient pattern grammar paucal perfect aspect perfective performative verb period periodic sentence perlocutionary effect person 1 Grammatical person 2 Ordering of the three persons personal pronoun 1 Properties of personal pronouns 2 Person 3 Number 4 Case phonestheme phrasal verb and prepositional verb 1 Phrasal verbs 2 Prepositional verbs 3 Phrasal–prepositional verbs phrase phrase marker phraseology pied-piping plain form pleonasm pluperfect plural 1 Plurality and grammatical number in English 2 Plurals of common nouns 3 Plurals of nouns borrowed from languages other than English 4 Plurals of compounds 5 Plurals of proper nouns 6 Plurals of national groups pluralia tantum polar question polarity politeness polysemy polysyndetic coordination portmanteau words positive possession possessive adjective possessive determiner possessive pronoun postdeterminer postmodifier postpose postposition 1 Postponement of a syntactic constituent 2 Use of a preposition following a noun phrase postpositive postpredicate PP pragmatic pragmatic marker predeterminer predicate 1 Predicate in traditional grammar 2 Predicate in modern grammars predicative adjective predicative complement predicator 1 Predicator as finite verb phrase 2 Predicator as nonfinite part of verbal group prediction prefix premodifier preposition 1 Prepositions as a word class 2 Prepositions and other word classes 3 Complex prepositions 4 Prepositions in syntax 5 Stranded prepositions preposition group prepositional adverb prepositional passive prepositional phrase (PP) 1 Components of prepositional phrases 2 Prepositional phrases as complements to other phrase types 3 Prepositional phrases as adjuncts 4 Length of prepositional phrases prepredicate present continuous present imperfect present perfect present subjunctive present tense 1 Present tense paradigm 2 Present tense and unbounded time 3 Present tense and future time 4 Present tense in narrative preterite primary and secondary verb form principal parts private verb process proclitic pro-form pro-verb progressive aspect projection 1 Projection of syntactic structures from generative rules 2 Derivational relationship between lexical items and syntactic structures 3 Alternative projections with verbs of reporting and quoting pronoun 1 Pronouns as a word class 2 Pronouns in syntax 3 Pronouns and substitution 4 Variation in the forms of pronouns 5 Other pronoun-like devices proper noun and proper name prop-IT pro-predicate protasis pseudo-cleft sentence 1 Syntactic structure of pseudo-clefts 2 Pseudo-clefts, IT-clefts, and reverse(d) pseudo-clefts 3 Discourse roles of pseudo-clefts 4 Issues of agreement with pseudo-clefts public verb punctuation 1 Punctuation as an evolving system 2 Punctuation and sentence grammar 3 Heavy vs. light punctuation 4 Punctuation and word forms Q qualifier quantifier quasi-modal question 1 Question function and interrogative syntax 2 Open questions/wh-questions 3 Closed, YES/NO, or polar questions 4 Tag questions 6 Direct and indirect questions question mark quotation quotation marks quotative R raising 1 Raising of objects 2 Subject raising 3 Negative raising raising verb range rank scale rank-shifting real condition reciprocal relationship recursion and recursiveness redundancy reduplicative referential reflexive pronoun 1 Reflexive pronouns in modern English 2 Agreement with reflexive pronouns 3 Reflexive pronouns without antecedents reflexive verb regular verb 1 Morphology of regular verbs 2 Phonological variation in regular verbs 3 Orthographic variation in regular verbs regularization relational opposite relational verb relative adverb relative clause 1 Relative clauses and their function 2 Relative clauses and relativizers 3 Restrictive and nonrestrictive relative clauses 4 Sentence relative clause relative pronoun 1 Relative pronouns as a set 2 Relative pronouns and relative clauses 3 WHICH vs. THAT as relativizers 4 Alternations with relative adverbs 5 Zero relative pronoun/zero relativizer relativizer remote condition residue restrictive relative clause resumptive pronoun reverse(d) pseudo-cleft sentence rheme rhetorical question right dislocation right-branching sentence root root modality run-on S -s 1 Plural -(e)s suffix for most nouns 2 Suffix for third person singular present tense 3 Adverbial suffix 4 Collective suffix 5 Familiarity marker scare quotes scope second person pronoun secondary form secondary headword secondary tense selection(al) restriction -SELF and -SELVES semantic override semantic prosody semantic restriction semi-auxiliary semicolon semideterminer semimodal sense relations sentence adjunct sentence adverb sentence 1 Sentence types: simple, compound, complex 2 Sentence fragments 3 Sentence functions: statement, question, command, exclamation 4 Sentence length 5 Information structure within the sentence sentence relative clauses sequence of tenses SEVERAL SFG SHALL and WILL SHE and HER 1 SHE/HER and HERS: grammatical roles 2 Applications of SHE to nonfemale referents 3 Generic SHE S/HE short passive SHOULD and WOULD shudder quotes simple sentence SINCE singular slash sneer quotes SO 1 SO as a degree adverb and intensifier 2 SO as connective adverb 3 Conjunctive roles of SO 4 SO as substitute word 5 SO with negators: NOT SO, SO NOT solidus SOME SOMEBODY, SOMEONE, and SOMETHING space speech act verb split infinitive statement stative verb stem stranded preposition strong verb subcategorization subject subject case subject complement subject territory subjective case subjunct subjunctive 1 Subjunctive mood 2 Past (WERE ) subjunctive 3 Present (mandative) subjunctive 4 Subjunctive formulae subordinate clause subordination subordinator 1 Simple subordinators that heads a finite clause. 3 Marginal subordinators substitute word substitution suffix summation plural superlative superordinate superordinate clause supplementary relative clause supplementive clause suppletion and suppletive form surface structure SVOA, SVOC, SVOO synecdoche synonymy syntagm and syntagmatic syntax systemic-functional grammar (SFG) T -t tag question TAM tautology tense 1 Verb tense forms in English: present and past 2 Tense in modal verbs 3 Future tense in English 4 Uses of the present tense 5 Tense, aspect, mood/modality 6 Sequence of tenses 7 Tense and time tensed tetragram textual function THAN THAT THAT or WHICH THE THEE THEIR THEIRS THEIRSELVES and THEIRSELF thematic thematic structure thematization theme 1 Generalized subject of a discourse 2 Primary unit of information structure in a sentence 3 One type of thematic role THEMSELVES and THEMSELF THERE THEREFORE THESE theta role THEY and THEM 1 Morphology of THEY, THEM 2 Singular use of THEY 3 Generic use of THEY third person pronoun THIS THOU and THEE three-place predicate (3-place predicate) THUS TILL and UNTIL timeless present TO topic, topicalization, and topical progression 1 Topic and information delivery 2 Topic and comment vs. given and new 3 Topicalization 4 Topical progression 5 Multiple topics TOTAL OF traditional grammar transferred negation transformational-generative grammar (TG) transitive verb transitivity 1 Transitive and intransitive verbs 2 Transitivity and phrasal verbs 3 Transitivity and prepositional verbs 4 Types of transitive construction 5 Types of intransitive construction 6 Transitivity as a clausal function tree diagram triadic predicate trigram trivalent verb two-part verb two-place predicate (2-place predicate) U unattached participle uncount noun unification unmarked unreal condition untensed verb UNTIL and TILL US V valency 1 Valency as a linguistic concept 2 Valency and verb arguments 3 Valency and transitivity 4 Valency and theta roles 5 Valency and other word classes verb 1 Roles of the verb 2 Major classes of verbs 3 Regular and irregular verbs 4 Verb inflections and syntax 5 Tense, aspect, voice, mood, and modality 6 Semantic classification of lexical verbs 7 Transitivity and verb complementation 8 Catenative verbs 9 Copular verbs (linking verbs) verb argument verb complement clause verb phrase (VP) 1 A verb-headed unit 2 Finite verb/operator of a clause 3 Verb + complement verbal group verbal noun verbal style verb-complement clause virgule vocative voice (1) 1 The grammatical concept of voice 2 Active and passive voice 3 Middle voice (mediopassive 4 Voice and valency voice (2) volition VP W WE and US 1 Morphology of WE/US 2 Exclusive and inclusive uses of WE 3 Specialized inclusive uses of WE/US WERE-subjunctive wh-cleft wh-question and wh-interrogative wh-word WHAT 1 WHAT as pronoun or determiner in direct questions 2 WHAT as subordinator/pronoun in indirect questions 3 WHAT in nominal relative clauses 4 WHAT in exclamations 5 WHAT vs. WHICH as determiners 6 WHAT as substitute word 7 Redundant WHAT WHETHER WHICH WHILE WHO and WHOM WHOSE WILL and SHALL 1 Historical convergence of WILL and SHALL 2 Current functions of WILL 3 Distinctive roles for SHALL 4 Relationship between WILL/SHALL and WOULD/SHOULD WITH word 1 Words as orthographic units 2 Words, compounds, and acronyms 3 Variant word forms and lexemes 4 Homonymic pairs and sets of words 5 Lexical and functional (“grammatical”) words 6 Simple, complex, and compound words word class 1 Traditional word classes 2 Word classes in modern English grammars 3 Open and closed word classes 4 Movements between individual word classes word formation 1 Derivational processes 2 Loanwords from languages other than English 3 Applications of proper nouns 4 Strategic or spontaneous creations word order word space WOULD and SHOULD 1 Use of WOULD and SHOULD in expressing past tense 2 Modal meanings for WOULD and SHOULD 3 Expressing politeness X X-bar Y YE YET 1 YET as an adve 2 The collocation YET TO 3 YET as a conjunction YOU 1 YOU the invariant pronoun 2 Generic or indefinite YOU 3 Regional variants of YOU YOUR and YOU´RE Z zero zero adverb zero article zero complementizer zero conjunction zero derivation zero-headed zero past tense zero plural zero relativizer zero valency, zero valence References