Integrated Circuit Fabrication

Description

This book covers theoretical and practical aspects of all major steps in the fabrication sequence. This book can be used conveniently in a semester length course on integrated circuit fabrication. This text can also serve as a reference for practicing engineer and scientist in the semiconductor industry. IC Fabrication are ever demanding of technology in rapidly growing industry growth opportunities are numerous. A recent survey shows that integrated circuit currently outnumber humans in UK, USA, India and China. The spectacular advances in the development and application of integrated circuit technology have led to the emergence of microelectronic process engineering as an independent discipline. Integrated circuit fabrication text books typically divide the fabrication sequence into a number of unit processes that are repeated to form the integrated circuit. The effect is to give the book an analysis flavor: a number of loosely related topics each with its own background material. Note: T& F does not sell or distribute the Hardback in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Page Brief Contents Detail Contents Preface 1. Introduction to Silicon Wafer Processing 1.1 Introduction 1.2 VLSI Generations 1.3 Clean Room 1.4 Semiconductor Materials 1.5 Crystal Structure 1.6 Crystal Defects 1.7 Si properties & its Purification 1.8 Single Crystal Si Manufacture 1.8.1 Czochralski Crystal Growth Technique 1.8.2 Float zone Technique (FZ Technique) 1.9 Silicon Shaping 1.10 Wafer Processing Considerations 1.11 Summary Problems References 2. Epitaxy 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Liquid Phase Epitaxy 2.3 Vapor Phase Epitaxy/Chemical Vapor Deposition 2.3.1 Growth Model and Theoretical Treatment 2.3.2 Growth Chemistry 2.3.3 Doping 2.3.4 Reactors 2.4 Defects 2.5 Technical Issues for Si Epitaxy by CVD 2.5.1 Uniformity/Quality 2.5.2 Buried Layer Pattern Transfer 2.6 Autodoping 2.7 Selective Epitaxy 2.8 Low Temperature Epitaxy 2.9 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) 2.9.1 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) 2.10 Silcon-on-Insulator (SOI) 2.11 Silicon on Sapphire (SOS) 2.12 Silicon on SiO2 2.13 Summary Problems References 3. Oxidation 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Growth and Kinetics 3.2.1 Dry Oxidation 3.2.2 Wet Oxidation 3.3 Growth Rate of Silicon Oxide Layer 3.4 Impurities effect on the Oxidation Rate 3.5 Oxide Properties 3.6 Oxide Charges 3.7 Oxidation Techniques 3.8 Oxide Thickness Measurement 3.9 Oxide Furnaces 3.10 Summary Problems Reference 4. Lithography 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Optical Lithography 4.3 Contact Optical Lithography 4.4 Proximity Optical Lithography 4.5 Projection Optical Lithography 4.6 Masks 4.7 Photomask Fabrication 4.8 Phase Shifting Mask 4.9 Photoresist 4.10 Pattern Transfer 4.11 Particle-Based Lithography 4.11.1 Electron Beam Lithography 4.11.2 Electron-Matter Interaction 4.12 Ion Beam Lithography 4.13 Ultra Violet Lithography 4.14 X-Ray Lithography 4.15 Comparison of Lithographic Techniques 4.16 Summary Problems References 5. Etching 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Etch Parameters 5.3 Wet Etching Process 5.4 Silicon Etching 5.5 Silicon Dioxide Etching 5.6 Aluminum Etching 5.7 Dry Etching Process 5.8 Plasma Etching Process 5.8.1 Plasma Chemical Etching Process 5.8.2 Sputter Etching Process 5.8.3 Reactive Ion Etching (RIE) Process 5.9 Inductive coupled Plasma Etching (ICP) 5.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Dry Etching (Plasma Etching) and Wet Etching 5.11 Examples of Etching Reactions 5.12 Liftoff 5.13 Summary Problems References 6. Diffusion 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Atomic Mechanisms of Diffusion 6.2.1 Substitutional Diffusion 6.2.2 Interstitial Diffusion 6.3 Fick’s Laws of Diffusion 6.4 Diffusion Profiles 6.4.1 Constant Source Concentration Distribution 6.4.2 Limited Source Diffusion or Gaussian Diffusion 6.5 Dual Diffusion Process 6.5.1 Intrinsic & Extrinsic Diffusion 6.5.2 Diffusivity of Antimony in Silicon 6.5.3 Diffusivity of Arsenic in Silicon 6.5.4 Diffusivity of Boron in Silicon 6.5.5 Diffusivity of Phosphorus in Silicon 6.6 Emitter Push Effect 6.7 Field-Aided Diffusion 6.8 Diffusion Systems 6.9 Oxide Masking 6.10 Impurity Redistribution During Oxide Growth 6.11 Lateral Diffusion 6.12 Diffusion in Polysilicon 6.13 Measurement Techniques 6.13.1 Staining 6.13.2 Capacitance-Voltage Plotting (C-V) 6.13.3 Four Point Probe (FPP) 6.13.4 Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS) 6.13.5 Spreading Resistance Probe (SRP) 6.14 Summary Problems References 7. Ion Implantation 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Ion Implanter 7.2.1 Gas System 7.2.2 Electrical System 7.2.3 Vacuum System 7.2.4 Control System 7.2.5 Beam Line System 7.3 Ion Implant Stop Mechanism 7.4 Range and Straggle of Ion Implant 7.5 Thickness of Masking 7.6 Doping Profile of Ion Implant 7.7 Annealing 7.7.1 Furnace Annealing 7.7.2 Rapid Thermal Annealing (RTA) 7.8 Shallow Junction Formation 7.8.1 Low Energy Implantation 7.8.2 Tilted Ion Beam 7.8.3 Implanted Silicides and Polysilicon 7.9 High Energy Implantation 7.10 Buried Insulator 7.11 Summary Problems References 8. Film Deposition: Dielectric, Polysilicon and Metallization 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) 8.2.1 Evaporation 8.2.2 Sputtering 8.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 8.4 Silicon Dioxide 8.5 Silicon Nitride 8.5.1 Locos Methods 8.6 Polysilicon 8.7 Metallization 8.8 Metallization Application in VLSI 8.9 Mettalization Choices 8.10 Copper Metallization 8.11 Aluminium Metallization 8.12 Metallization Processes 8.13 Deposition Methods 8.14 Deposition Apparatus 8.15 Liftoff Process 8.16 Multilevel Metallization 8.17 Characteristics of Metal Thin Film 8.18 Summary Problems References 9. Packaging 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Package Types 9.3 Packaging Design Considerations 9.4 Integrated Circuit Package 9.5 VLSI Assembly Technologies 9.6 Yield 9.7 Summary Problems References 10. VLSI Process Integration 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Fundamental Considerations for IC Processing 10.3 NMOS IC Technology 10.4 CMOS IC Technology 10.4.1 N-Well Process 10.4.2 P-Well Process 10.4.3 Twin Tub Process 10.5 Bipolar IC Technology 10.6 Bi-CMOS Technology 10.7 Bi-CMOS Fabrication 10.8 FinFET 10.9 Monolithic and Hybrid Integrated Circuits 10.10 IC Fabrication / Manufacturing 10.11 Fabrication Facilities 10.12 Summary Problems References Appendix Appendix A Properties of Ge and Si at 300 K Appendix B List of Symbols Appendix C Useful Physical Constants Appendix D Periodic table of the elements and element electronic mass Appendix E Some Properties of the Error Function Index