Springer Handbook of Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics

Description

Comprises a comprehensive reference source that unifies the entire fields of atomic molecular and optical (AMO) physics, assembling the principal ideas, techniques and results of the field. 92 chapters written by about 120 authors present the principal ideas, techniques and results of the field, together with a guide to the primary research literature (carefully edited to ensure a uniform coverage and style, with extensive cross-references). Along with a summary of key ideas, techniques, and results, many chapters offer diagrams of apparatus, graphs, and tables of data. From atomic spectroscopy to applications in comets, one finds contributions from over 100 authors, all leaders in their respective disciplines. Substantially updated and expanded since the original 1996 edition, it now contains several entirely new chapters covering current areas of great research interest that barely existed in 1996, such as Bose-Einstein condensation, quantum information, and cosmological variations of the fundamental constants. A fully-searchable CD- ROM version of the contents accompanies the handbook. Foreword Foreword to the First Edition by Herbert Walther Preface Preface to the First Edition Editorial Board Contents List of Tables About the Authors Part A Mathematical Methods 1 Units and Constants 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Atomic Units 1.3 Natural Units 1.4 Fundamental Constants References 2 Angular Momentum Theory 2.1 Orbital Angular Momentum 2.2 Abstract Angular Momentum 2.3 Representation Functions 2.4 Group and Lie Algebra Actions 2.5 Differential Operator Realizations of Angular Momentum 2.6 The Symmetric Rotor and Representation Functions 2.7 Wigner–Clebsch–Gordan and 3–j Coefficients 2.8 Tensor Operator Algebra 2.9 Racah Coefficients 2.10 The 9–j Coefficients 2.11 Tensor Spherical Harmonics 2.12 Coupling and Recoupling Theory and 3n–j Coefficients 2.13 Supplement on Combinatorial Foundations 2.14 Author's Comments 2.15 Tables References 3 Group Theory for Atomic Shells 3.1 Generators 3.2 Classification of Lie Algebras 3.3 Irreducible Representations 3.4 Branching Rules 3.5 Kronecker Products 3.6 Atomic States 3.7 The Generalized Wigner–Eckart Theorem 3.8 Checks References 4 Dynamical Groups 4.1 Noncompact Dynamical Groups 4.2 Hamiltonian Transformation and Simple Applications 4.3 Compact Dynamical Groups References 5 Perturbation Theory 5.1 Matrix Perturbation Theory (PT) 5.2 Time-Independent Perturbation Theory 5.3 Fermionic Many-Body Perturbation Theory (MBPT) 5.4 Time-Dependent Perturbation Theory References 6 Second Quantization  6.1 Basic Properties 6.2 Tensors 6.3 Quasispin 6.4 Complementarity 6.5 Quasiparticles References 7 Density Matrices 7.1 Basic Formulae 7.2 Spin and Light Polarizations 7.3 Atomic Collisions 7.4 Irreducible Tensor Operators 7.5 Time Evolution of State Multipoles 7.6 Examples 7.7 Summary References 8 Computational Techniques 8.1 Representation of Functions 8.2 Differential and Integral Equations 8.3 Computational Linear Algebra 8.4 Monte Carlo Methods References 9 Hydrogenic Wave Functions 9.1 Schrödinger Equation 9.2 Dirac Equation 9.3 The Coulomb Green's Function 9.4 Special Functions References 10 Software for Computational Atomic and Molecular Physics 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Software for Atomic Physics 10.3 Software for Molecular Physics 10.4 Software Libraries and Repositories 10.5 General Tools References Part B Atoms 11 Atomic Spectroscopy 11.1 Frequency, Wavenumber, Wavelength 11.2 Atomic States, Shells, and Configurations 11.3 Hydrogen and Hydrogen-Like Ions 11.4 Alkalis and Alkali-Like Spectra 11.5 Helium and Helium-Like Ions; LS Coupling 11.6 Hierarchy of Atomic Structure in LS Coupling 11.7 Allowed Terms or Levels for Equivalent Electrons 11.8 Notations for Different Coupling Schemes 11.9 Eigenvector Composition of Levels 11.10 Ground Levels and Ionization Energies for Neutral Atoms 11.11 Zeeman Effect 11.12 Term Series, Quantum Defects, and Spectral-Line Series 11.13 Sequences 11.14 Spectral Wavelength Ranges, Dispersion of Air 11.15 Wavelength Standards 11.16 Spectral Lines: Selection Rules, Intensities, Transition Probabilities, f Values, and Line Strengths 11.17 Atomic Lifetimes 11.18 Regularities and Scaling 11.19 Tabulations of Transition Probabilities 11.20 Spectral Line Shapes, Widths, and Shifts 11.21 Spectral Continuum Radiation 11.22 Sources of Spectroscopic Data References 12 High Precision Calculations for Helium 12.1 Introduction 12.2 The Three-Body Schrödinger Equation 12.3 Computational Methods 12.4 Variational Eigenvalues 12.5 Total Energies 12.6 Radiative Transitions 12.7 Future Perspectives References 13 Atomic Multipoles 13.1 Polarization and Multipoles 13.2 The Density Matrix in Liouville Space 13.3 Diagonal Representation: State Populations 13.4 Interaction with Light 13.5 Extensions References 14 Atoms in Strong Fields 14.1 Electron in a Uniform Magnetic Field 14.2 Atoms in Uniform Magnetic Fields 14.3 Atoms in Very Strong Magnetic Fields 14.4 Atoms in Electric Fields 14.5 Recent Developments References 15 Rydberg Atoms 15.1 Wave Functions and Quantum Defect Theory 15.2 Optical Excitation and Radiative Lifetimes 15.3 Electric Fields 15.4 Magnetic Fields 15.5 Microwave Fields 15.6 Collisions 15.7 Autoionizing Rydberg States References 16 Rydberg Atoms in Strong Static Fields 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Semiclassical Approximations 16.3 Regular Trajectories and Regular Wave Functions 16.4 Chaotic Trajectories and Irregular Wave Functions 16.5 Nuclear-Mass Effects 16.6 Quantum Theories References 17 Hyperfine Structure 17.1 Splittings and Intensities 17.2 Isotope Shifts 17.3 Hyperfine Structure References 18 Precision Oscillator Strength and Lifetime Measurements 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Oscillator Strengths 18.3 Lifetimes References 19 Spectroscopy of Ions Using Fast Beams and Ion Traps 19.1 Spectroscopy Using Fast Ion Beams 19.2 Spectroscopy Using Ion Traps References 20 Line Shapes and Radiation Transfer 20.1 Collisional Line Shapes 20.2 Radiation Trapping References 21 Thomas-Fermi and Other Density-Functional Theories 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Thomas–Fermi Theory and Its Extensions 21.3 Nonrelativistic Energies of Heavy Atoms 21.4 General Density Functional Theory 21.5 Recent Developments References 22 Atomic Structure: Variational Wave Functions and Properties 22.1 Nonrelativistic and Relativistic Hamiltonians 22.2 Many-Electron Wave Functions 22.3 Variational Principle 22.4 Hartree–Fock and Dirac–Hartree–Fock Methods 22.5 Multiconfiguration (Dirac)-Hartree–Fock Method 22.6 Configuration Interaction Methods 22.7 Atomic Properties 22.8 Summary References 23 Relativistic Atomic Structure 23.1 Mathematical Basics 23.2 Dirac's Equation 23.3 QED: Relativistic Atomic and Molecular Structure 23.4 Many-Body Theory For Atoms 23.5 Spherical Symmetry 23.6 Numerical Methods for the Radial Dirac Equation 23.7 Finite Differences 23.8 Many-Electron Atoms 23.9 GRASP – Information and Software References 24 Many-Body Theory of Atomic Structure and Processes 24.1 Diagrammatic Technique 24.2 Calculation of Atomic Properties 24.3 Concluding Remarks References 25 Photoionization of Atoms 25.1 General Considerations 25.2 An Independent Electron Model 25.3 Particle–Hole Interaction Effects 25.4 Theoretical Methods for Photoionization 25.5 Related Photoionization Processes 25.6 Applications to Other Processes 25.7 Future Directions References 26 Autoionization 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Projection Operator Formalism 26.3 Forms of P and Q 26.4 Width, Shift, and Shape Parameter 26.5 Other Calculational Methods 26.6 Related Topics References 27 Green’s Functions of Field Theory 27.1 Introduction 27.2 The Two-Point Green's Function 27.3 The Four-Point Green's Function 27.4 Radiative Transitions 27.5 Radiative Corrections References 28 Quantum Electrodynamics 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Basic QED Formalism 28.3 Perturbation Theory with Green Functions 28.4 Two-Particle Bound States 28.5 Many-Electron Bound States 28.6 Recoil Corrections at High Z 28.7 Concluding Remarks References 29 Tests of Fundamental Physics 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Consistency of Fundamental Physics 29.3 Topics in This Review 29.4 Electron bold0mu mumu gg29.3gggg-Factor Anomaly 29.5 Atom Recoil Experiments and Mass Spectrometry 29.6 Mass-Ratio Measurements Using the bold0mu mumu gg29.5gggg-Factor of Hydrogen-Like Ions 29.7 Hydrogen Atom Energy levels References 30 Atomic Clocks and Constraints on Variations of Fundamental Constants 30.1 Atomic Clocks and Frequency Standards 30.2 Atomic Spectra and Their Dependence on the Fundamental Constants 30.3 Laboratory Constraints on Temporal Variations of Fundamental Constants 30.4 Summary References 31 Searches for New Particles Including Dark Matter with Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Systems 31.1 Nongravitational Interactions of Spinless Bosons 31.2 New Forces 31.3 Laboratory Sources 31.4 Astrophysical Sources 31.5 Cosmological Sources References 32 Searches for New Physics 32.1 Parity Nonconserving Effects in Atoms 32.2 Electric Dipole Moments and Related Phenomena 32.3 Tests of the CPT Symmetry 32.4 Lorentz Symmetry Tests 32.5 AMO Tests of General Relativity References Part C Molecules 33 Molecular Structure 33.1 Concepts 33.2 Characterization of Potential Energy Surfaces 33.3 Intersurface Interactions: Perturbations 33.4 Nuclear Motion 33.5 Reaction Mechanisms: A Spin-Forbidden Chemical Reaction 33.6 Recent Developments References 34 Molecular Symmetry and Dynamics 34.1 Dynamics and Spectra of Molecular Rotors 34.2 Rotational Energy Surfaces and Semiclassical Rotational Dynamics 34.3 Symmetry of Molecular Rotors 34.4 Tetrahedral-Octahedral Rotational Dynamicsand Spectra 34.5 High-Resolution Rovibrational Structure 34.6 Composite Rotors and Multiple RES References 35 Radiative Transition Probabilities 35.1 Overview 35.2 Molecular Wave Functions in the Rotating Frame 35.3 The Energy–Intensity Model 35.4 Selection Rules 35.5 Absorption Cross Sections and Radiative Lifetimes 35.6 Vibrational Band Strengths 35.7 Rotational Branch Strengths 35.8 Forbidden Transitions 35.9 Recent Developments References 36 Molecular Photodissociation 36.1 Observables 36.2 Experimental Techniques 36.3 Theoretical Techniques 36.4 Concepts in Dissociation 36.5 Recent Developments 36.6 Summary References 37 Time Resolved Molecular Dynamics 37.1 Introduction 37.2 The Principle of Time-Resolved Spectroscopy 37.3 Pump-Probe Scheme 37.4 Transient Absorption in the Liquid Phase 37.5 Further Implementations References 38 Nonreactive Scattering 38.1 Definitions 38.2 Quantal Method 38.3 Symmetries and Conservation Laws 38.4 Coordinate Systems 38.5 Scattering Equations 38.6 Matrix Elements 38.7 Semi and Quasi-Classical Methods 38.8 Example: CO–H2 38.9 New Directions References 39 Gas Phase Reactions 39.1 Introduction 39.2 Normal Bimolecular Reactions 39.3 Association Reactions 39.4 Concluding Remarks References 40 Gas Phase Ionic Reactions Abstract 40.1 Overview 40.2 Reaction Energetics 40.3 Chemical Kinetics 40.4 Reaction Processes 40.5 Electron Attachment 40.6 Recombination References 41 Clusters 41.1 Introduction 41.2 Metal Clusters 41.3 Carbon Clusters 41.4 Ionic Clusters 41.5 Semiconductor Clusters 41.6 Noble Gas Clusters 41.7 Molecular Clusters 41.8 Recent Developments References 42 Infrared Spectroscopy 42.1 Introduction 42.2 Historical Evolution of Infrared Spectroscopy Practice 42.3 Quantitative Analysis by Infrared Spectroscopy 42.4 Molecular Spectroscopy 42.5 Remote Sensing 42.6 The Evolution of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 42.7 Laser-Based Infrared Spectroscopy 42.8 Intensities of Infrared Radiation 42.9 Sources for IR Spectroscopy 42.10 Relationship Between Source Spectrometer Sample and Detector 42.11 Simplified Principle of FTIR Spectroscopy 42.12 The Scanning Michelson Interferometer 42.13 Infrared Spectroscopy Application Activity 2020 42.14 Conclusion References 43 Laser Spectroscopy in the Submillimeterand Far-Infrared Regions 43.1 Introduction 43.2 Experimental Techniques Using Coherent SM-FIR Radiation 43.3 Submillimeter and FIR Astronomy 43.4 Upper Atmospheric Studies References 44 Spectroscopic Techniques: Lasers 44.1 Laser Basics 44.2 Laser Designs 44.3 Interaction of Laser Light with Matter 44.4 Recent Developments References 45 Spectroscopic Techniques: Cavity-Enhanced Methods 45.1 Limitations of Traditional Absorption Spectrometers 45.2 Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy 45.3 Cavity-Enhanced Spectroscopy 45.4 Extensions to Solids and Liquids References 46 Spectroscopic Techniques: Ultraviolet 46.1 Light Sources 46.2 VUV Lasers 46.3 Spectrometers 46.4 Detectors 46.5 Optical Materials References Part D Scattering Theory 47 Classical, Quantal, and Semiclassical Propagators and Applications to Elastic Scattering 47.1 What Is Semiclassics? 47.2 Quantum, Classical, and Semiclassical Propagators 47.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Semiclassics 47.4 Applications to Elastic Scattering 47.5 Quantal Elastic Scattering 47.6 Classical Elastic Scattering 47.7 Semiclassical Elastic Scattering 47.8 Coulomb Elastic Scattering 47.9 Results for Model Potentials References 48 Orientation and Alignment in Atomic and Molecular Collisions 48.1 Introduction 48.2 Collisions Involving Unpolarized Beams 48.3 Collisions Involving Spin-Polarized Beams 48.4 Example 48.5 Further Developments 48.6 Summary References 49 Electron–Atom, Electron–Ion, and Electron–Molecule Collisions 49.1 Electron–Atom and Electron–Ion Collisions 49.2 Electron–Molecule Collisions 49.3 Electron–Atom Collisions in a Laser Field References 50 Quantum Defect Theory 50.1 Overview 50.2 Conceptual Foundation of QDT References 51 Positron Collisions 51.1 Scattering Channels 51.2 Theoretical Methods 51.3 Particular Applications 51.4 Binding of Positrons to Atoms 51.5 Positronium Scattering 51.6 Antihydrogen 51.7 Reviews References 52 Adiabatic and Diabatic Collision Processes at Low Energies 52.1 Basic Definitions 52.2 Two-State Approximation 52.3 Single-Passage Transition Probabilities in Common Trajectory Approximation 52.4 Double-Passage Transition Probabilities 52.5 Multiple-Passage Transition Probabilities References 53 Ion–Atom and Atom–Atom Collisions 53.1 Introduction 53.2 General Considerations and Formulation of the Problem 53.3 Approximate Versus Full Many-Electron Treatments 53.4 Calculational Techniques 53.5 Description of the Ionization Continuum References 54 Ultracold Rydberg Atom–Atom Interaction 54.1 Zero/Short-Range Neutral Collisions 54.2 Low-Energy Phase Shift and Zero-Energy Scattering Length 54.3 Ultralong-Range Rydberg Molecules: Fermi's Idea Redux 54.4 Fermi Extended: Do Elastic Collisions Result in Inelastic Chemical Reactions? 54.5 Ion-Pair Molecules 54.6 Few-Body Short-Range Scattering 54.7 Collective Quantum Many-Body Effects References 55 Ion–Atom Charge Transfer Reactions at Low Energies 55.1 Classical and Semiclassical Treatments 55.2 The Molecular Orbital Approach 55.3 Cold and Ultracold Charge Exchange and Association 55.4 New Developments and Future Prospects References 56 Continuum Distorted Wave and Wannier Methods 56.1 Introduction 56.2 Continuum Distorted Wave Method 56.3 Wannier Method References 57 Basic Atomic Processes in High-Energy Ion–Atom Collisions 57.1 Introduction 57.2 Atomic Ionization and Projectile-Electron Loss 57.3 Electron Transfer Processes 57.4 Electron–Positron Pair Production References 58 Electron–Ion, Ion–Ion, and Neutral–Neutral Recombination Processes 58.1 Recombination Processes 58.2 Collisional-Radiative Recombination 58.3 Macroscopic Methods 58.4 Zero-Range Methods 58.5 Hyperspherical Methods 58.6 Field-Assisted Methods 58.7 Dissociative Recombination 58.8 Mutual Neutralization 58.9 One-Way Microscopic Equilibrium Current, Flux, and Pair Distributions 58.10 Microscopic Methods for Termolecular Ion–Ion Recombination 58.11 Radiative Recombination 58.12 Useful Quantities References 59 Dielectronic Recombination 59.1 Introduction 59.2 Theoretical Formulation 59.3 Comparisons with Experiment 59.4 Radiative-Dielectronic Recombination Interference 59.5 Dielectronic Recombination in Plasmas References 60 Rydberg Collision Theories 60.1 Rydberg Collision Processes 60.2 General Properties of Rydberg States 60.3 Correspondence Principles 60.4 Distribution Functions 60.5 Classical Theory 60.6 Universality Properties 60.7 Many-Body and Multiparticle Effects 60.8 Working Formulae for Rydberg Collisions 60.9 Impulse Approximation 60.10 Binary Encounter Approximation 60.11 Born Approximation References 61 Mass Transfer at High Energies: Thomas Peak 61.1 The Classical Thomas Process 61.2 Quantum Description 61.3 Off-Energy-Shell Effects 61.4 Dispersion Relations 61.5 Destructive Interference of Amplitudes 61.6 Recent Developments References 62 Classical Trajectory and Monte Carlo Techniques 62.1 Theoretical Background 62.2 Region of Validity 62.3 Applications 62.4 Conclusions References 63 Collisional Broadening of Spectral Lines 63.1 Impact Approximation 63.2 Isolated Lines 63.3 Overlapping Lines 63.4 Quantum-Mechanical Theory 63.5 One-Perturber Approximation 63.6 Unified Theories and Conclusions References Part E Scattering Experiment 64 Photodetachment 64.1 Negative Ions 64.2 Photodetachment 64.3 Experimental Procedures 64.4 Measuring Properties of Negative Ions 64.5 Investigation of Fundamental Processes 64.6 Observations and Applications of Negative Ions References 65 Photon–Atom Interactions: Low Energy 65.1 Theoretical Concepts 65.2 Experimental Methods 65.3 Additional Considerations References 66 Photon–Atom Interactions: Intermediate Energies 66.1 Overview 66.2 Scattering Cross Sections 66.3 Experimental Progress 66.4 Theory, Computation, and Data 66.5 Future Directions References 67 Electron–Atom and Electron–Molecule Collisions 67.1 Basic Concepts 67.2 Collision Processes 67.3 Coincidence and Superelastic Measurements 67.4 Experiments with Polarized Electrons 67.5 Electron Collisions with Excited Species 67.6 Electron Collisions in Traps 67.7 Current Applications 67.8 Emerging Applications References 68 Ion–Atom Scattering Experiments: Low Energy 68.1 Low-Energy Ion–Atom Collision Processes 68.2 Experimental Methods for Total Cross Section Measurements 68.3 Methods for State-Selective Measurements References 69 Ion–Atom Collisions – High Energy 69.1 Basic One-Electron Processes 69.2 Multielectron Processes 69.3 Electron Spectra in Ion–Atom Collisions 69.4 Quasi-Free Electron Processes in Ion–Atom Collisions 69.5 Some Exotic Processes References 70 Reactive Scattering 70.1 Introduction 70.2 Experimental Methods 70.3 Experimental Configurations 70.4 Elastic and Inelastic Scattering 70.5 Reactive Scattering 70.6 Recent Developments References 71 Ion–Molecule Reactions 71.1 Introduction 71.2 Specification of Cross Sections 71.3 Instrumentation 71.4 Kinematics 71.5 Recent Examples of State-Resolved Measurements 71.6 The Future of the Field References Part F Quantum Optics 72 Light-Matter Interaction 72.1 Multipole Expansion 72.2 Lorentz Atom 72.3 Two-Level Atoms 72.4 Relaxation Mechanisms 72.5 Rate Equation Approximation 72.6 Light Scattering References 73 Absortion and Gain Spectra 73.1 Introduction 73.2 Index of Refraction 73.3 Density Matrix Treatment of the Two-Level Atom 73.4 Line Broadening 73.5 The Rate Equation Limit 73.6 Two-Level Doppler-Free Spectroscopy 73.7 Three-Level Spectroscopy 73.8 Special Effects in Three-Level Systems 73.9 Summary of the Literature References 74 Laser Principles 74.1 Gain, Threshold, and Matter–Field Coupling 74.2 Continuous Wave, Single-Mode Operation 74.3 Laser Resonators and Transverse Modes 74.4 Photon Statistics 74.5 Multimode and Pulsed Operation 74.6 Instabilities and Chaos References 75 Types of Lasers 75.1 Introduction 75.2 Single-Atom Transitions 75.3 Molecular Transitions 75.4 Solid-State Transitions 75.5 Free Electron Lasers 75.6 Nonlinear Optical Processes References 76 Nonlinear Optics 76.1 Nonlinear Susceptibility 76.2 Wave Equation in Nonlinear Optics 76.3 Second-Order Processes 76.4 Third-Order Processes 76.5 Stimulated Light Scattering 76.6 Other Nonlinear Optical Processes 76.7 New Regimes of Nonlinear Optics References 77 Coherent Transients 77.1 Introduction 77.2 Origin of Relaxation 77.3 State Evolution 77.4 Numerical Estimates of Parameters 77.5 Homogeneous Relaxation 77.6 Inhomogeneous Relaxation 77.7 Resonant Pulse Propagation 77.8 Multilevel Generalizations 77.9 Disentanglement and “Sudden Death” of Coherent Transients References 78 Multiphoton and Strong-Field Processes 78.1 Introduction 78.2 Weak-Field Multiphoton Processes 78.3 Strong-Field Multiphoton Processes 78.4 Strong-Field Calculational Techniques 78.5 Atto-Nano Physics References 79 Cooling and Trapping 79.1 Notation 79.2 Control of Atomic Motion by Light 79.3 Magnetic Trap for Atoms 79.4 Trapping and Cooling of Charged Particles 79.5 Experimental 79.6 Applications References 80 Quantum Degenerate Gases 80.1 Introduction 80.2 Elements of Quantum Field Theory 80.3 Basic Properties of Degenerate Gases 80.4 Experimental 80.5 BEC Superfluid 80.6 Optical Lattice as Quantum Simulator References 81 De Broglie Optics 81.1 Wave-Particle Duality 81.2 The Hamiltonian of de Broglie Optics 81.3 Evolution of De Broglie Waves 81.4 Refraction and Reflection 81.5 Diffraction 81.6 Interference 81.7 Coherence of Scalar Matter Waves References 82 Quantum Properties of Light 82.1 Introduction 82.2 Quantization of the Electromagnetic Field 82.3 Quantum States 82.4 Field Observables: Quadratures 82.5 Phase-Space Representations of the Light: P, Q, and Wigner Functions 82.6 Squeezed State 82.7 Detection of Quantum Light by Array Detectors 82.8 Two-Mode Squeezed States 82.9 Quantum Entanglement 82.10 Non-Gaussian Nonclassical States 82.11 Beam Splitter, Interferometer, and Measurement Sensitivity References 83 Entangled Atoms and Fields: Cavity QED 83.1 Introduction 83.2 Atoms and Fields 83.3 Weak Coupling in Cavity QED 83.4 Strong Coupling in Cavity QED 83.5 Micromasers 83.6 Cavity Cooling 83.7 Cavity QED for Cold Atomic Gases 83.8 Applications of Cavity QED References 84 Quantum Optical Tests of the Foundations of Physics 84.1 Introduction: The Photon Hypothesis 84.2 Quantum Properties of Light 84.3 Nonclassical Interference 84.4 Complementarity and Coherence 84.5 Measurements in Quantum Mechanics 84.6 The EPR Paradox and Bell's Inequalities 84.7 Single-Photon Tunneling Time 84.8 Gravity and Quantum Optics References 85 Quantum Information 85.1 Entanglement and Information 85.2 Simple Quantum Protocols 85.3 Quantum Logic 85.4 Quantum Algorithms 85.5 Error Correction 85.6 The DiVincenzo Checklist 85.7 Physical Implementations 85.8 Outlook References Part G Applications 86 Applications of Atomic and Molecular Physicsto Astrophysics 86.1 Introduction 86.2 Photoionized Gas 86.3 Collisionally Ionized Gas 86.4 Diffuse Molecular Clouds 86.5 Dark Molecular Clouds 86.6 Circumstellar Shells and Stellar Atmospheres 86.7 Supernova Ejecta 86.8 Shocked Gas 86.9 The Early Universe 86.10 Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array 86.11 Recent Developments 86.12 Other Reading References 87 Comets 87.1 Introduction 87.2 Observations 87.3 Excitation Mechanisms 87.4 Cometary Models 87.5 Summary References 88 Aeronomy 88.1 Basic Structure of Atmospheres 88.2 Density Distributions of Neutral Species 88.3 Interaction of Solar Radiation with the Atmosphere 88.4 Ionospheres 88.5 Neutral, Ion, and Electron Temperatures 88.6 Luminosity 88.7 Planetary Escape References 89 Applications of Atomic and Molecular Physics to Global Change 89.1 Overview 89.2 Atmospheric Models and Data Needs 89.3 Tropospheric Warming/Upper Atmosphere Cooling 89.4 Stratospheric Ozone 89.5 Atmospheric Measurements References 90 Surface Physics 90.1 Low Energy Electrons and Surface Science 90.2 Electron–Atom Interactions 90.3 Photon–Atom Interactions 90.4 Atom–Surface Interactions 90.5 Recent Developments References 91 Interface with Nuclear Physics 91.1 Introduction 91.2 Nuclear Size Effects in Atoms 91.3 Electronic Structure Effects in Nuclear Physics 91.4 Muon-Catalyzed Fusion References Index