Handbook of Fire and the Environment

Description

Foreword Preface Terminology and Definitions Scope Terminology and Definitions References Acknowledgments Contents List of Figures List of Tables Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview 1.1 The Problem 1.2 Historically Significant Fires 1.3 Fire Fundamentals 1.4 Fire and Smoke Modelling 1.5 Emission Measurements 1.6 Fires in Enclosures 1.7 Wildland Fires 1.8 Firefighting Chemicals 1.9 Tools and Techniques for Impact Analysis 1.10 Mitigation Strategies for Buildings 1.11 Mitigation Strategies for Waste Fires 1.12 Mitigation Strategies for Wildland Fires and WUI 1.13 Sustainable and Fire Resilient Built Environment (SAFR-BE) References Chapter 2: Historically Significant Fires 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Fossil Fuel-Based Products 2.2.1 Buncefield 2.2.2 Kuwait War Oil Field Fires 2.2.3 Lac Megantic 2.2.4 Tire Fire in Malmö 2.3 Chemical Products 2.3.1 Sandoz Fire 2.3.2 West (SA) and Al-Mishraq (Iraq) Sulfur Fires 2.3.3 Kolding Fireworks Fire 2.4 Wildland (Biomass) Fire 2.4.1 Wildland Fires in Sweden 2.5 Built Environment 2.5.1 Notre Dame 2.5.2 House Fires 2.6 Conclusion and Lessons Learned References Chapter 3: Fire Fundamentals 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Fire Triangle and Fire Tetrahedron 3.1.2 Flammable Limits 3.1.3 Basics of Ignition 3.2 Fuel 3.2.1 Phase Transition and Thermal Decomposition 3.2.2 Fires from Gas Phase Fuels 3.2.3 Fires from Liquid Phase Fuels 3.2.4 Fires from Solid Phase Fuels 3.3 Heat 3.3.1 Conduction 3.3.2 Convection 3.3.3 Radiation 3.3.4 Competent Ignition Source 3.4 Oxidizer 3.5 Products of Combustion 3.6 Fluid Flow 3.7 Heat Release Rate 3.7.1 Calculating Heat Release Rates 3.7.2 Measurement of Heat Release Rates 3.7.3 Application of Heat Release Rates 3.8 Enclosure Fires 3.9 External Fires References Chapter 4: Fire and Smoke Modelling 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Computer Models in Fire Engineering 4.1.2 Brief Introduction of Computational Wind Engineering 4.1.3 Wind and Fire Coupled Modelling 4.1.4 Relevant Research on Numerical Modelling of Wind and Building Fires 4.2 Modelling of Fires 4.2.1 Fire Sources and Compartment Fires 4.2.2 Smoke and Particulates 4.3 Smoke Dispersion Modelling 4.3.1 Introduction 4.3.2 Box Models 4.3.3 Gaussian Plume Models 4.3.4 Puff Models 4.3.5 Lagrangian Particle Models 4.3.6 Eulerian Models 4.4 Computational Fluid Dynamics Framework 4.4.1 Principles of Computational Fluid Dynamics 4.4.2 CFD Framework 4.4.3 Turbulence Modelling 4.4.4 Turbulent Diffusion 4.4.5 Examples of the Use of CFD in Smoke Dispersion Modelling 4.5 Practical Considerations for the CFD Modelling of Fire and Smoke Dispersion 4.5.1 Best Practice Guidelines in Computational Wind Engineering 4.5.2 Building the Domain 4.5.3 Introduction of Wind into Numerical Analysis 4.5.4 Mesoscale-Microscale Coupling 4.6 Challenges in CFD Modelling of the Environmental Impact of Fires 4.6.1 Time-Scale of the Analysis and the Particle Lifetime 4.6.2 Transport of Firebrands 4.6.3 De-coupling of the Wind and Fire Analyses and the Temporal Discretisation 4.7 Example of a Near-Field Smoke Dispersion Analysis 4.7.1 Assumptions for the Modelling 4.7.2 Results 4.8 Summary References Chapter 5: Emission Measurements 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Contamination Overview and Selection of Analytes 5.2.1 Background 5.2.2 Contamination Pathways Emission to the Air Emission to Water Environment Emission to the Terrestrial Environment 5.2.3 Contamination Targets 5.2.4 Contamination Duration Short-Term Impacts Long-Term Impacts 5.3 Sampling 5.3.1 Sampling Requirements 5.3.2 Apparatus and Techniques 5.3.3 Emissions to the Air 5.3.4 Emissions to the Water Environment 5.3.5 Emissions to the Terrestrial Environment 5.4 Analysis 5.4.1 Pollution Indicators 5.4.2 Analytical Techniques Suitable for Air Ground and Laboratory Analysis Long-Distance Atmospheric Measurements 5.4.3 Analytical Techniques Suitable for Water Run-Off 5.4.4 Analytical Techniques Suitable for Soils 5.5 Metrology of Measurement 5.5.1 Range of Analysis – Limits of Detection and Quantification 5.5.2 Accuracy, Repeatability and Reproducibility References Chapter 6: Fires in Enclosures 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The Environmental Context of Enclosure Fires 6.3 Fire Dynamics 6.3.1 Influence from the Enclosure on Fire Growth 6.3.2 Fully Developed Fires Compartment Size and Fire Loads Combustion Conditions 6.4 Incident Response to Fires in Enclosures 6.5 The Application of Life-Cycle Analysis to Sprinkler Systems in Enclosures 6.6 Enclosure Fires Including Industrial Chemicals References Chapter 7: Wildland Fire 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Impacts on Communities 7.3 Impacts on Biodiversity 7.3.1 Plants 7.3.2 Animals 7.4 Impacts on Soil and Water 7.5 Impact on Air Quality 7.6 Disproportionate Impact of Extreme Wildfires 7.7 Case Study - Black Summer Fires of 2019/2020 in South-Eastern Australia 7.7.1 Preconditions 7.7.2 Impact Impacts on Communities Impacts on Biodiversity Impacts on Soil and Water Impact on Air Quality Impact of Extreme Wildfires Economic 7.8 Summary References Chapter 8: Firefighting Chemicals 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Definition and Frequently Used Synonyms 8.1.2 Brief History 8.1.3 Mechanisms of Action 8.1.4 Application 8.2 Types of FFCs 8.2.1 Long-Term FFCs 8.2.2 Short-Term FFCs 8.3 Side Effects of FFCs 8.3.1 Environmental Effects Aquatic Ecosystems Terrestrial Ecosystems 8.3.2 Human Health 8.4 New Generation of Eco-Friendly FFCs 8.5 Summary References Chapter 9: Tools and Techniques for Impact Analysis 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Emission Sources 9.3 Emission Pathways and Recipients 9.3.1 Emissions to Air 9.3.2 Emissions to Water 9.3.3 Emissions to Soil 9.4 Risk Assessment 9.4.1 Three-Step Protocol for Economic Risk Assessment 9.5 Benefit-Cost Analysis (BCA) and Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) 9.5.1 Benefit-Cost Analysis (BCA) NIST EDGe$ and Non-traditional Benefit-Cost Analysis 9.5.2 Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) LCCA Analysis Example: Building Egress Design LCCA Software Example: BLCC 9.6 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 9.7 Specialized LCA-Based and Hybrid Models 9.7.1 LCA and Hybrid Models in Building Evaluation Building Products Whole Buildings 9.7.2 Fire-LCA 9.7.3 SiteWise™ 9.7.4 Wildfires References Chapter 10: Mitigation Strategies for Buildings 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Environmental Impact of Fire Concept Tree Branches 10.2.1 Prevent Ignition Control Heat-Energy Source(s) Control Source-Fuel Interactions Control Fuel 10.2.2 Manage Fire Control Combustion Process Suppress with Environmentally Friendly Agent Control Fire by Construction 10.2.3 Manage Exposure Limit Airborne Contaminants Limit Waterborne Contaminants Limit Soil Contaminants 10.3 Fire Mitigation and Control Measures Through Building Fire Regulation 10.3.1 Non-combustible Construction Materials 10.3.2 Limiting Compartment Size 10.3.3 Control of Contents General Storage/Large Shops Use and Storage of Hazardous Materials/Hazardous Processes Petroleum Processing and Storage Facilities Airports, Mission Critical and Firefighter Training Facilities 10.3.4 Suppress with Environmentally Friendly Agent Water-Based Suppression Systems Automatic Fire Sprinkler Systems Fine Water Mist Systems Manual Fire Suppression Water-Based Suppression Systems with Additives Gaseous Extinguishing (Suppression) Systems 10.4 Manage Fire Exposure to the Environment 10.4.1 Control of Fire-Fighting Water Quantity and Runoff 10.4.2 Control of Fire Effluents Directly into the Soil 10.5 Regulations, Standards, Guidelines and Related Resources 10.5.1 Building and Fire Regulation 10.5.2 Consensus (Reference) Standards 10.5.3 Industry and Professional Organizations Standards and Guidelines 10.5.4 Insurance Industry 10.5.5 Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 10.5.6 Environmental Regulation US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Europe: The Seveso Directive Queensland Government: Firefighting Foam Irish Environmental Protection Agency: Firefighting Water Runoff 10.5.7 Handbooks, Textbooks, Research Reports and Related Resources 10.6 Summary References Chapter 11: Mitigation Strategies for Waste Fires 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Type of Waste Storage and Types of Waste 11.3 Emissions from Waste Fires: Case Examples and Studies 11.4 Fire Mitigation Strategies at Waste Facilities References Chapter 12: Mitigation Strategies for Wildfires 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Fuel Management for Wildfire Mitigation 12.2.1 Fuel Traits and Flammability 12.2.2 Prescribed Burning 12.2.3 Mechanical Treatments Mastication Forest Thinning Fuel Removal/Fuel Breaks Grazing Landscaping 12.3 Fuel Management at Different Spatial Scales 12.4 Measures of Effectiveness 12.4.1 Ignition and Initial Growth 12.4.2 Landscape Fire Spread 12.4.3 Spread and Impact at the Wildland-Urban Interface 12.5 Fuel Management Under a Changing Climate 12.6 The Complexities of Fuel Management References Chapter 13: Sustainable and Fire Resilient Built Environment (SAFR-BE) 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Sustainable and Resilient – Concepts and Definitions Sustainable, Sustainability and Sustainable Development Resilient, Resilience and Resiliency Sustainability and Resiliency Interactions 13.2 Sustainability, Resiliency and Fire Safety 13.2.1 Sustainable and Fire Resilient Built Environment (SAFR-BE) Concept 13.2.2 Sustainable and Fire Resilient Buildings (SAFR Buildings) 13.2.3 Sustainable and Fire Resilient Infrastructure (SAFR Infrastructure) 13.2.4 Sustainable and Fire Resilient Communities (SAFR Communities) Sustainable Communities Resilient Communities SAFR Communities 13.3 Sustainability and Resiliency in Building Regulations 13.3.1 Sustainability and Resiliency – Competing Regulatory Objectives 13.3.2 Sustainability and Resiliency Objectives in Building Regulations Today 13.3.3 A Socio-technical Approach to Building Regulatory Systems 13.4 Summary References Index