Handbook of Waste Biorefinery: Circular Economy of Renewable Energy

Description

This handbook discusses the latest developments in biorefinery technologies for waste-to-energy conversion. The growing global population and the accompanying increase in consumption and waste production make it urgent to find the best possible use of our resources. A sustainable waste management under the biorefinery concept has great potential to support a sustainable circular economy and green energy production. This handbook is divided into four parts. First, the reader is introduced to the fundamentals and recent trends of waste-to-energy technologies. The second part describes in detail the current status, challenges, and potential of the different feedstocks used for waste-to-energy conversion. Here, municipal solid waste, sewage sludge, oils and greases generated during food preparation, industrial wastewaters, and agricultural wastes, to name a few, are introduced.  In the third part, numerous waste-to-energy technologies are discussed in detail, including anaerobic digestion, composting, gasification, plasma technology, thermal cracking, and others. Advantages and optimization potentials of these technologies for efficient residue management, quality and yield are highlighted. Finally, the handbook discusses social, environmental and economic aspects of waste-to-energy biorefinery technologies. Readers will learn more about the major bottlenecks and solutions in bioenergy commercialization, the logistics of biomass supply and the carbon footprint of waste biorefineries. The ideas and technologies presented in this book contribute to the UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) of "Affordable and Clean Energy". This book is a useful reference for postgraduate students and researchers interested in biorefinery and biofuel technologies, both in academia- and commercial laboratories. Early career scientists can use it to fast track into the field. Advanced scientists will find it helpful in gaining a broader overview of the field beyond their area of specialization. Preface Contents Part I: Fundamentals Chapter 1: Principles, Concepts, and Recent Trends Applied to the Waste Biorefineries 1.1 Waste Biorefineries: Context, Principles, and Importance 1.2 Feedstocks, Platforms, Products, and Processes 1.2.1 Feedstocks: Dedicated Feedstocks and Residues/Waste 1.2.2 Biorefinery Processes 1.2.3 Biorefinery Platforms 1.2.4 Biorefinery General Products 1.3 Current Scenario, Challenges, and Future Trends 1.3.1 Challenges and Trends in Biorefining 1.3.1.1 Plant and Products Sustainability 1.3.1.1.1 Natural Resources Usage 1.3.1.1.2 Biomass Utilization 1.3.1.2 Business Model Sustainability 1.3.1.3 Current Waste Biorefineries 1.3.1.3.1 Large-Scale Project: BALI Biorefinery Demo, Borregaard AS 1.3.1.3.2 Small-Scale Project: Biokol, Stockholm Biochar Project References Chapter 2: Zero-Waste Biorefinery 2.1 Introduction 2.2 A Zero-Waste Biorefinery Concept 2.3 Current Biorefineries 2.3.1 First-Generation Biorefinery 2.3.2 Second-Generation Biorefinery 2.3.2.1 Second-Generation Biofuels 2.3.2.2 Hemicellulose-based Bioproducts 2.3.2.3 Lignin-based Bioproducts 2.3.2.4 Lignocellulosic Biomass-based Biochar 2.3.2.5 Crude Glycerol-based Products 2.3.3 Third-Generation Biorefinery 2.4 State of the Art 2.5 Limitations and Prospects of Zero-Waste Biorefinery 2.6 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Waste Biorefineries Facilities: The Feedstock Choice 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Waste Biorefineries 3.3 Waste Feedstocks 3.3.1 Agro-industrial Waste 3.3.2 Municipal Solid Waste 3.3.3 Food Waste 3.3.4 Oil-Based Wastes 3.3.5 Sewage Sludge 3.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 4: Emerging Pretreatment Technologies Applied to Waste Biorefinery 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Waste Generations and Waste Biorefineries 4.3 Biorefinery System Classifications 4.4 Pretreatment Technologies Applied for Waste Biomass 4.5 Emerging/Advanced Pretreatment Technologies Applied to Waste Biorefinery 4.5.1 Hydrothermal Liquefaction 4.5.2 Plasma Liquefaction 4.5.3 Pyrolysis 4.5.4 Gasification 4.5.5 Microwave Irradiation 4.5.6 Ionic Liquids (ILs) 4.5.7 Deep-Eutectic Solvents (DESs) 4.5.8 Ultrasound 4.5.9 Gamma Radiation 4.5.10 Electron Beam Radiation 4.6 Conclusion References Chapter 5: Waste Biomaterials Innovation Markets 5.1 Introduction 5.2 State of Art 5.2.1 Bioeconomy-Based Markets 5.2.2 Waste Bio-based Innovation Markets 5.2.2.1 Conceptual Assumptions to Draw a Waste Bioeconomy 5.2.2.2 Methodological Procedures 5.2.2.3 Waste Technological and Market Foresight Study 5.2.2.4 TT1: ``Waste´´ Pyrolysis and Combustion 5.2.2.5 TT2: ``Waste´´ Plasma-Based Technologies 5.2.2.6 TT3: Waste for Renewable Fuels, Wastewater and Biomass Treatment Through Biological Processes 5.3 Conclusions References Chapter 6: Step Forward on Waste Biorefineries: Technology Bottlenecks and Perspective on Commercialization 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Biorefinery Assessment 6.3 Waste Biorefinery Feedstocks 6.3.1 Agricultural Wastes 6.3.2 Wood Residues, Herbs, and Manures 6.3.3 Municipal Wastes 6.3.4 Industrial Wastes 6.3.5 Aquatic Organisms 6.4 Steps for the Application of Biorefinery 6.5 Bottlenecks of Waste Biorefineries: Current Status and New Accomplishments 6.6 Perspective on Business and Commercialization 6.7 Conclusions and Outlook References Part II: Feedstocks Chapter 7: Strategies for Municipal Solid Waste: Functional Elements, Integrated Management, and Legislative Aspects 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Definition of Solid Waste 7.1.2 Sources of Solid Waste 7.2 Waste Generation and Quantity 7.3 Types and Composition of Solid Waste 7.3.1 Types of Solid Wastes 7.3.2 Composition of Solid Waste 7.4 Functional Elements of the Waste Management System 7.4.1 Onsite Handling and Storage 7.4.2 Waste Collection 7.4.3 Pneumatic Waste Conveyance System (PWCS) 7.4.4 Transfer Station 7.4.5 Waste Processing and Recovery 7.4.6 Final Disposal by Landfilling 7.4.6.1 Introduction 7.4.6.2 Landfills in the World 7.4.6.3 Categories of Landfill 7.4.6.4 Landfill Leachate and Its Treatment 7.4.6.5 Design, Operation, and Challenges for Landfilling 7.5 Integrated Solid Waste Management 7.6 Legislative Aspects of Solid Waste 7.7 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 8: Sewage Sludge Biochar 8.1 Introduction 8.2 State of the Art 8.2.1 Sewage Sludge in Agriculture: Benefits and Limitations 8.2.2 Pyrolysis as a Sustainable Alternative to Enable the Disposal of Sewage Sludge on Agricultural Soil 8.2.2.1 Chemical Characteristics of Sewage Sludge Biochar 8.2.2.2 Sewage Sludge Biochar as Soil Amendment 8.2.2.3 Sewage Sludge Biochar for Plant Disease Control 8.2.2.4 Biochar Enrichment 8.2.2.5 Sewage Sludge Biochar and Carbon Sequestration in the Soil 8.2.2.6 Sewage Sludge Biochar and the Risks of Contamination with Heavy Metals 8.3 Recommendations References Chapter 9: Recovery of Value-Added Products from Industrial Wastewaters: A Review to Potential Feedstocks 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Sugar and Ethanol Production Process and Its Wastewaters 9.2.1 Juice, Molasses, and Vinasse 9.2.1.1 Characterization of Juice and Molasses 9.2.1.2 Characterization of Vinasse 9.2.2 Environmental Compliance and Energy Production 9.2.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion of Vinasse 9.2.2.2 Anaerobic Digestion of Molasses and Juice 9.2.3 Value-Added Products 9.2.3.1 Production of Value-Added Products from Molasses and Juice 9.2.3.2 Production of Value-Added Products from Vinasse 9.3 Dairy Production Process and Its Wastewaters 9.3.1 Cheese Whey 9.3.2 Environmental Compliance and Energy Production 9.3.3 Value-Added Products 9.4 Biodiesel Production Process and Its Wastewaters 9.4.1 Glycerin 9.4.2 Environmental Compliance and Energy Production 9.4.2.1 Hydrogen Production 9.4.2.2 Methane Production 9.4.3 Value-Added Products 9.5 Cassava Processing and Its Wastewaters 9.5.1 Cassava Wastewater 9.5.2 Environmental Compliance and Energy Production 9.5.3 Value-Added Products 9.6 Circular Economy Based on Wastewaters References Chapter 10: Fats, Oils, and Grease (FOG): Opportunities, Challenges, and Economic Approaches 10.1 Fats, Oils, and Grease 10.1.1 Opportunities 10.1.2 Sources 10.1.3 Challenges 10.1.4 Handling and Disposal 10.2 Reuse Options 10.2.1 Anaerobic Co-digestion 10.2.1.1 Opportunities 10.2.1.2 FOG Degradation 10.2.1.3 Challenges 10.2.1.4 Solutions 10.2.2 Biodiesel Production 10.2.2.1 Opportunities 10.2.2.2 Transesterification Mechanism 10.2.2.3 Challenges 10.2.2.4 Solutions 10.2.3 Other Applications 10.2.3.1 Composting 10.2.3.2 Land Application 10.3 Microbial Conversion of FOG Waste 10.4 Economic Implications for a Circular Economy References Chapter 11: Food Waste Biorefineries: Developments, Current Advances and Future Outlook 11.1 Introduction 11.2 State-of-the-Art and Developments 11.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion 11.2.2 Extraction and Separation 11.2.2.1 Mechanical Extraction 11.2.2.2 Solvent Extraction 11.2.2.3 Sub- and Supercritical Fluids 11.2.2.4 Distillation 11.2.3 Thermal and Microwave Treatments 11.2.3.1 Pyrolysis 11.2.3.2 Hydrothermal 11.2.4 Combining Techniques 11.3 Outlook 11.4 Image Credits References Chapter 12: The Role of Livestock Wastes in Clean Energy: A Mapping in Germany´s Potential Installations 12.1 Introduction 12.2 The Role of the Livestock Industry in Waste Generation 12.3 Livestock Residue as for Resources for Clean Energy Production 12.4 Mapping Germanies Biogas Reactors 12.5 KDE Heatmap 12.6 K-Means Cluster 12.7 Conclusions References Chapter 13: Agricultural Waste-Derived Management for Bioenergy: A Paradigm Shift in the Waste Perceptions 13.1 General Waste Management 13.1.1 Waste Management Practices 13.1.2 Climate Change and Waste Management 13.2 Waste Conversion Technologies 13.2.1 Incineration 13.2.2 Gasification 13.2.3 Pyrolysis 13.2.4 Anaerobic Digestion 13.2.5 Hydrothermal Liquefaction 13.2.6 Torrefaction 13.3 Applications of Waste-to-Energy 13.3.1 Electricity Production 13.3.2 Biohydrogen Production 13.3.3 Ethanol Production 13.3.4 Packaging Applications 13.3.5 Adsorption Agents 13.3.6 Fertiliser and Carotene Production 13.3.7 The Multiple Applications of Rice Husk/Rice Husk Ash 13.4 Advances in Waste-to-Energy Conversion Technologies 13.4.1 Biological Hydrogen Production 13.4.2 Dark Fermentation 13.4.3 Bioelectrochemical Process 13.4.3.1 Microbial Fuel Cell 13.4.3.2 Microbial Electrolysis Cells 13.5 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Forestry Wastes: Technical Concepts, Economic Circularity, and Sustainability Approaches 14.1 Insights on Forestry Residues 14.1.1 Classification for Forestry Residues 14.1.2 Chemical Characteristics of Forestry Residues 14.2 Pre-Treatments Applied to Forestry Residues 14.3 Composite Materials from Forestry Residues 14.3.1 Wood Plastic Composites (WPC) 14.3.2 Polyurethane Foams 14.3.3 Cement Composites 14.4 Fuels from Forestry Residues 14.4.1 Primary Fuels from Forestry Residues 14.4.2 Biofuels Produced from Forestry Residues by Densification 14.4.3 Biofuels Produced from Forestry Residues by Pyrolysis 14.4.4 Biofuels Produced from Forestry Residues by Gasification 14.4.5 Production of Ethanol from Syngas 14.4.6 Biofuels Produced from Forestry Residues by Fermentation Hydrolysis 14.5 Main Valuable Products Derived from Forestry Residues 14.5.1 Sugar Alcohols 14.5.2 Films 14.5.3 Biosorbents 14.5.4 Furans 14.6 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 15: Panoramic View about Microalgae Biomass as Waste-to-Energy: A Biorefinery Concept 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Biorefinery of Microalgae 15.2.1 Lipids Fraction 15.2.2 Carbohydrate Fraction 15.2.3 Protein Fraction 15.3 Microalgae Biomass Conversion Technologies 15.3.1 Thermochemical Conversion 15.3.1.1 Gasification 15.3.1.2 Liquefaction 15.3.1.3 Pyrolysis 15.3.1.4 Direct Combustion 15.3.2 Chemical Conversion 15.3.2.1 Transesterification 15.3.3 Biochemical Conversion 15.3.3.1 Anaerobic Digestion 15.3.3.2 Production of Bioethanol 15.3.3.3 Production of Biohydrogen 15.4 Potential Products from Microalgal Biomass 15.4.1 Lipids and Oil 15.4.2 Biodiesel 15.4.3 Drop-in Fuels 15.4.4 Bio-Oil and Bio-Char 15.4.5 Heat and Power 15.4.6 Carbohydrates 15.4.7 Proteins 15.4.8 Pigments 15.4.9 Biogas 15.5 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) and Techno-economic Analysis 15.5.1 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 15.5.2 Techno-economic Analysis (TEA) 15.6 Challenges and Future Prospects 15.7 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Yeast Biomass: A By-Product for Application in the Food, Energy, Plastics, and Pharmaceutical Industries 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Yeast Biomass and Brewery 16.3 Yeast Biomass Production 16.3.1 Active Dry Yeast and Application 16.3.2 Yeast Starters in Wine, Beer, and Baker Industries 16.4 Yeasts as a Source of Lipid for Biodiesel Production 16.5 S. cerevisiae as an Attractive Cell Factory for Novel Applications 16.5.1 Production of Organic Acids: 3-Hydroxypropionic, Succinic, Levulinic, and Lactic Acids 16.5.1.1 3-Hydroxypropionic Acid 16.5.1.2 Succinic Acid 16.5.1.3 Levulinic Acid 16.5.1.4 Lactic Acid 16.5.2 Sugar Alcohol 16.5.2.1 Sorbitol 16.5.2.2 Xylitol 16.6 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 17: Enzymes Applied to Lignocellulosic Biorefinery 17.1 Overview 17.2 Lignocellulosic Biomasses as a Raw Material with High Value-Added 17.3 Biocatalysis of Lignocellulosic Structures 17.3.1 Cellulose 17.3.2 Hemicellulose 17.3.3 Lignin 17.4 Perspectives and Insights References Part III: Waste to Energy-Food-Feed-Chemical-Material Technologies (WtEFFCM-Tech) Chapter 18: Waste to Chemicals 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Waste-Types and Source 18.2.1 Food Waste 18.2.2 Agricultural Waste 18.3 Waste to Value Added Products 18.3.1 Waste to Energy 18.3.1.1 Hydro Thermal Liquefaction (HTL) 18.3.1.2 Pyrolysis 18.3.1.3 Anaerobic Digestion 18.3.2 Waste to Feed 18.3.2.1 Waste as Animal Feed 18.3.2.2 Waste as Fish Feed 18.3.3 Waste to Platform Chemicals: Types and Economics 18.3.3.1 Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) 18.3.3.2 Lactic Acid 18.3.3.3 Sorbitol 18.3.3.4 Succinic Acid 18.3.4 Waste to Biomaterials 18.3.4.1 Biopolymers 18.3.4.2 Waste Biomass as Lignocellulosic Feedstock 18.3.4.3 Agro-industrial and Forestry Wastes for Agglomerated Materials 18.4 Platform Chemicals Synthesis Process 18.4.1 HMF 18.4.2 Lactic Acid 18.4.3 Succinic Acid 18.4.4 Sorbitol 18.5 Conclusions References Chapter 19: Fundamentals for Waste-to-Energy from Anaerobic Digestion Technologies: An Overview 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Biochemical Mechanism of AD 19.2.1 Hydrolysis 19.2.2 Acidogenesis 19.2.3 Acetogenesis 19.2.4 Methanogenesis 19.3 Classifications of AD 19.3.1 Digester Feeding Type 19.3.2 Wet or Dry Digestion 19.3.3 Single- or Multiple-Stage AD 19.4 Parameters Affecting AD Performance 19.4.1 Biomass Characterisation 19.4.1.1 Nutrient Composition 19.4.1.2 pH and VFA 19.4.1.3 Carbon to Nitrogen (C/N) Ratio 19.4.1.4 Free Ammonia-Nitrogen (FAN) Content 19.4.2 Digester Operational Configuration 19.4.2.1 Temperature 19.4.2.2 Retention Time 19.4.2.3 Organic Loading Rate (OLR) 19.5 Opportunities to Improve AD Process 19.5.1 Pre-treatment Technologies 19.5.1.1 Physical Pre-treatment 19.5.1.1.1 Mechanical Pre-treatment 19.5.1.1.2 Ultrasonication 19.5.1.1.3 Microwave Irradiation 19.5.1.2 Thermal Pre-treatment 19.5.1.2.1 Heating Pre-treatment 19.5.1.2.2 Freeze-Thawing Pre-treatment 19.5.1.3 Chemical Pre-treatment 19.5.1.3.1 Alkaline Pre-treatment 19.5.1.3.2 Acid Pre-treatment 19.5.1.3.3 Oxidative Pre-treatment 19.5.1.3.4 Ozonation 19.5.1.4 Biological Pre-treatment 19.5.1.5 Physicochemical Pre-treatment Methods 19.5.1.5.1 Steam Explosion 19.5.1.5.2 Hydrothermal Pre-treatment 19.5.1.5.3 Ammonia Fibre Expansion Pre-treatment 19.5.2 Co-digestion 19.5.3 Conductive Materials 19.5.3.1 Mechanism of Conductive Materials: Direct Interspecies Electron Transfer (DIET) 19.5.3.1.1 Activated Carbon (AC) 19.5.3.1.2 Biochar 19.5.3.1.3 Neutral Red 19.6 Economics of AD Systems 19.7 Conclusions References Chapter 20: Composting Technologies for Biowastes: Environmental and Techno-Economic Feasibilities under Biorefinery Concepts 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Underlying Principles of BW Biorefineries 20.3 Biochemical Conversion Platform 20.4 Composting Integration Aspects 20.4.1 Composting of Downstream Residues 20.4.2 Composting Heat Energy Harvesting 20.4.3 Compost Value-Added Products 20.4.4 Environmental and Techno-Economic Feasibilities 20.5 Conclusion References Chapter 21: Vermicomposting Technology: A Sustainable Option for Waste Beneficiation 21.1 Introduction 21.2 The Science of Vermicomposting and Earthworms 21.3 Current State of Research on Vermicomposting 21.4 Vermicomposts on Plant Growth 21.5 Vermicomposts on Degraded Soil Physical Properties 21.6 Vermi-Leachate 21.7 Vermicomposting in Wastewater Treatment 21.8 Conclusion References Chapter 22: Land Application of Organic Waste Compost 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Advantages of Organic Waste Compost Application in Farmland 22.2.1 Advantages of Organic Waste Compost in Soil 22.2.1.1 Enhancement of Soil Nutrients 22.2.1.2 Improvement of Soil Biological Activity 22.2.2 Advantages of Organic Waste Compost in Plant 22.2.2.1 Improvement of Crop Yields 22.2.2.2 Improvement of Crop Quality 22.2.2.3 Promotion of Crop Root Development 22.3 Principles and Methods of Applying Organic Fertilizer to Crops 22.3.1 Wheat 22.3.2 Corn 22.3.3 Rice 22.4 Principles and Methods of Applying Organic Fertilizer to Fruits 22.4.1 Apple 22.4.2 Pear 22.4.3 Orange 22.5 Principles and Methods of Applying Organic Fertilizer to Vegetables 22.5.1 Tomato 22.5.2 Potato 22.5.3 Bean 22.5.4 Cabbage 22.6 Principles and Methods of Applying Organic Fertilizer to Tea 22.6.1 Principles of Applying Organic Fertilizer to Tea 22.6.2 Methods of Applying Organic Fertilizer to Tea 22.7 Challenges and Perspectives 22.8 Conclusion References Chapter 23: Thermal Cracking Processes Up-to-dateness for Oil Vacuum Residual and Bio-Raw Materials: A Perspective for Municip... 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Thermal Cracking Processes 23.2.1 Visbreaking 23.2.1.1 Deep Thermal Conversion Process 23.2.1.2 High Conversion Soaker Cracking (HSC) Process 23.2.1.3 Gasification 23.2.2 Coking Processes 23.2.2.1 Periodic Coking 23.2.2.2 Delayed Coking 23.2.2.3 Continuous Coking 23.2.3 Thermal Processes for the Processing of Solid Waste 23.3 Conclusions References Chapter 24: Chemistry to Technology of Gasification Process: A Close Look into Reactions and Kinetic Models 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Biomass Feedstock and Its Pre-Treatment 24.3 Gasification Process Chemistry and Technology 24.3.1 Drying 24.3.2 Oxidation 24.3.3 Pyrolysis 24.4 Types of Pyrolysis 24.4.1 Slow Pyrolysis 24.4.2 Fast Pyrolysis 24.4.3 Reduction 24.4.4 Catalytic Reforming of Tar 24.5 Key Operating Parameters 24.5.1 Particle Size of Biomass 24.5.2 Temperature 24.5.3 Steam Flow Rate (Steam to Biomass Ratio, S/B) 24.5.4 Gasifying Agents 24.5.5 Equivalence Ratio 24.6 Design of the Gasifier 24.6.1 Feed/Air Flow Direction 24.6.2 Fixed Bed Gasifier 24.6.3 Fluidized Bed Gasifier 24.6.4 Entrained Flow Reactor 24.6.5 Rotary Kiln Reactor 24.6.6 Plasma Technology 24.7 Syngas Cleaning 24.8 Methods for Removal of Contaminants 24.8.1 Physical Gas Cleaning or Cold Gas Method 24.8.2 Hot Gas Cleanup 24.9 Treatment of Various Contaminants 24.9.1 Tars 24.9.2 Nitrogen 24.9.3 Sulfur 24.9.4 Halides 24.9.5 Trace Metals 24.10 Challenges in Syngas Cleaning 24.11 Mathematical Modeling and Simulation of Gasifiers 24.11.1 Thermodynamic Equilibrium Model 24.11.2 Stoichiometric Equilibrium Models 24.11.3 Non Stoichiometric Equilibrium Model 24.11.4 Kinetic Model 24.11.5 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Models 24.11.6 Artificial Neural Network (ANN) 24.12 Present Challenges in Bio-Gasification and Path Forward 24.13 Conclusions References Chapter 25: Open Burning Application to Municipal Solid Waste: Quantification Methods, Emission Inventories, and Uncertainty D... 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Systems for Solid Waste Management 25.3 Methods to Estimate MSW Open Burning 25.3.1 Municipal Solid Waste Generation 25.3.2 Estimation of the Waste Combustible Fraction 25.3.3 Estimation of the Fraction of Population Burning MSW 25.3.4 Estimation of the Fraction of MSW Burning at Disposal Sites 25.3.5 Emission Factors 25.3.6 Calculation 25.3.6.1 Solid Waste Open Burning at Source 25.3.6.2 Solid Waste Open Burning at Disposal Site 25.3.6.3 Estimation of Emissions from MSW Open Burning 25.4 Factors that Determines Uncertainties of MSW Open Burning 25.5 Conclusion References Chapter 26: Overview of Torrefaction Technologies: A Path Getaway for Waste-to-Energy 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Principle of Torrefaction 26.2.1 Dry Torrefaction 26.2.2 Wet Torrefaction 26.2.3 Ionic-Liquid-Assisted Torrefaction 26.3 Easy of Size Reduction Before and After Torrefaction 26.4 Characterisation Before, During and After Torrefaction 26.4.1 Physical (Morphological) Characterisation 26.4.2 Chemical Characterisation 26.4.3 Thermal Degradation 26.4.4 Fuel Characterisation 26.5 Different Measures of Torrefaction Efficiency 26.6 Torrefaction Reactors 26.6.1 Directly Heated Reactors 26.6.1.1 Compact Moving Bed Reactor 26.6.1.2 Fluidised Bed Reactor 26.6.1.3 Oscillating Bed Reactor 26.6.1.4 Multiple Hearth Reactor 26.6.1.5 Hydrothermal Reactor 26.6.2 Indirectly Hearted Reactors 26.6.2.1 Fixed Bed Reactor 26.6.2.2 Rotary Drum Reactor 26.6.2.3 Screw Conveyor Reactor 26.6.2.4 Microwave Reactor 26.7 Non-Power Applications of Torrefied Biomass 26.8 Kinetics of Torrefaction Process 26.9 Summary of the Chapter References Chapter 27: Hydrothermal Carbonisation of Waste Biomass: Current Limitations, Strategic Success and Market Position Analysis 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Process and Technology Developments 27.2.1 Hydrothermal Carbonisation: Process 27.2.2 Feedstock 27.2.3 Products 27.2.4 Solid-Form Product: Hydrochar 27.2.5 Methods for Hydrochar Analysis 27.2.6 Liquid Product: Process Water 27.2.7 Gaseous Products 27.2.8 Process Limitations and Challenges 27.3 Process Conditions and Reaction Mechanisms 27.3.1 Effect of Process Conditions on Hydrochar Properties 27.3.2 Temperature 27.3.3 Time 27.3.4 Initial Solid Biomass to Water Ratio 27.3.5 Acidic Conditions/Catalyst 27.3.6 Reaction Mechanisms 27.4 Circular Economy: Products from Waste 27.4.1 Applications of Hydrochar 27.4.2 Solid Biofuel 27.4.3 Soil Amendment 27.4.4 Activation for Adsorption 27.4.5 Activation for Electrode Material 27.4.6 Catalyst 27.4.7 Process Water Applications 27.5 Limitations in the Field 27.5.1 Capital and Operational Costs 27.5.2 Knowledge Surrounding HTC and the Different Applications of Its Products 27.5.3 Economically Viability of HTC and Hydrochar 27.5.4 Competing with Other Technologies and Products 27.6 Conclusion References Chapter 28: A Comprehensive Outlook to Hydrothermal Liquefaction Technology: Economic and Environmental Benefits 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) 28.2.1 The HTL Process 28.2.2 Biochemical Compounds in Biomass 28.2.2.1 Lipids 28.2.2.2 Proteins 28.2.2.3 Carbohydrates 28.2.3 Reactions on the HTL Process 28.2.3.1 Processes at Meso-Micro Scale 28.2.3.2 Chemical Reactions in the HTL Process 28.2.3.2.1 Lipids 28.2.3.2.2 Proteins 28.2.3.2.3 Carbohydrates Simple Saccharides Polysaccharides Starch 28.2.3.2.4 Bio-Compound Mixtures 28.2.4 Kinetic Modeling of HTL 28.3 Effect of the Feedstock on the Production of Bio-Oil 28.3.1 Advantages of Microalgae for Biofuel Production 28.3.1.1 Microalgae Cultivation 28.3.2 Influence of the Operation Variables in the HTL Process 28.3.2.1 Temperature Effect 28.3.2.2 Pressure Effect 28.3.2.3 Solvent Effect 28.3.2.4 Effect of the Solvent/Biomass Ratio 28.3.2.5 Use of Catalysts in HTL 28.3.2.5.1 Homogeneous Catalysts 28.3.2.5.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts 28.4 The HTL Process in the Circular Economy 28.4.1 HTL of Microalgae Used for Water Treatment 28.4.1.1 Use of Microalgae for Water Treatment 28.4.1.2 HTL Process with Microalgae Used in Water Treatment 28.4.2 Other Feedstocks to the HTL Process 28.4.2.1 Processing of Sludge from Wastewater Treatment by HTL 28.4.2.2 Woody Biomass 28.5 Biocrude Processing 28.5.1 General Aspects 28.5.2 Transformation from Bio-Oil to Bio-jet Fuel 28.5.3 Co-Processing of Biocrude with Fossil Crude in a Refinery 28.6 Life Cycle Assessment of HTL 28.7 Conclusions References Chapter 29: Landfill Gas Utilization 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Impurities Removal Methods for Improved LFG Utilization 29.3 LFG to Energy Technologies 29.4 Conclusion References Chapter 30: Plasma Technology in Waste-to-Energy Valorization: Fundamentals, Current Status, and Future Directions 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Definition of Plasma 30.3 Thermal Plasma: Fundamentals, Concept, and Mechanism of Gasification 30.4 Plasma Operating Parameters 30.4.1 Plasma Reactor 30.4.2 Reactor Design 30.4.3 Gasifier Reaction Temperature and Residence Time 30.4.4 Gas, Oxidant, and Steam Streams Requirements 30.5 Municipal Solid Waste Treatments and Value Added by Plasma Technology 30.5.1 Plastic Waste 30.5.2 Food Wastes 30.5.3 Electronic Waste 30.6 Plasma Gasification Technology Challenges 30.6.1 Fundamental Process Understanding 30.6.2 Operational Cost 30.6.3 Commercialization 30.6.4 Community Readiness Level 30.6.5 Energy Intensive Process 30.6.6 Waste Sorting Difficulties 30.7 Conclusion References Part IV: Criteria for Policy, Environmental, Social, Intellectual Property, Economic Aspects, and Scalability Chapter 31: Strategy and Design of Innovation Policy Road Mapping for Waste Biorefineries 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Effect of COVID-19 on Global Projections 31.3 Biomass Usage in History 31.4 Biomass Composition 31.5 Biochemicals and Biomaterials 31.5.1 Biomaterials 31.5.1.1 Biofibers and Biocomposites 31.5.1.2 Bioplastics 31.5.2 Biochemicals 31.5.2.1 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) 31.5.2.2 Levulinic Acid 31.5.2.3 Furfural 31.5.2.4 Succinic Acid 31.5.2.5 Lactic Acid 31.6 Biorefinery Concept Gone Wrong: Case Study 31.7 Bioenergy and Biofuel Policies across the Globe 31.7.1 Germany 31.7.2 USA 31.7.3 Canada 31.7.4 Mexico 31.7.5 Australia 31.7.6 China 31.7.7 Sweden and Finland 31.7.8 Japan 31.7.9 Brazil 31.7.10 India 31.8 Future Challenges and Prospective References Chapter 32: Sustainability Metrics on Waste Biorefineries 32.1 Introduction 32.2 Potential Feedstocks under Waste Biorefineries Context 32.2.1 Agricultural Waste 32.2.2 Forest Waste 32.2.3 Food Waste 32.2.4 Municipal Waste 32.3 Life Cycle Assessment Standard on Waste Biorefineries 32.4 Beyond Sustainability: Circular Bioeconomy and Carbon Credits 32.5 Conclusion References Chapter 33: Exergy Analysis of Waste Biorefineries 33.1 Introduction 33.1.1 Energy, Entropy, and Exergy 33.1.2 Exergy Calculations 33.1.3 Exergy Efficiency and Exergy Destruction 33.1.4 Exergy Analysis of Waste Biorefineries: Current State 33.1.5 Chemical Exergy Analysis of Wastes Refineries: System Boundary and Functional Unit 33.1.5.1 Chemical Exergy Analysis of POMEs Anaerobic Digestion 33.1.5.2 Biodiesel from Waste Oil: Chemical Exergy Analysis of Transesterification Reactor References Chapter 34: Social Circular Economy Indicators Applied to Wastage Biorefineries 34.1 Introduction 34.2 Social Life Cycle Assessment 34.3 Social Circular Economy Indicators 34.4 Social Impacts in Waste Biorefineries 34.5 Conclusions References Chapter 35: How to Realize an Urban Circular Bioeconomy 35.1 Introduction 35.2 Background and State of the Art 35.3 Disruptive Technological Approaches 35.4 Examples 35.4.1 Phosphate Recycling from Sewage Sludge 35.4.2 Producing Methanol from Bio-methane and Hydrogen 35.4.3 Producing Chemicals from Bio-methane and CO2 35.4.4 Novel Routes to Polymer Production Based on Glycans 35.4.5 The Green Waste Biorefinery 35.4.6 The Bioeconomy of Waste Biorefineries: Insects 35.5 Discussion 35.6 Conclusion References Chapter 36: Innovation Management on Waste Biorefineries 36.1 The Current Environmental Context and Key Determinant Factors of Biorefineries 36.1.1 The Paradigm Shift from Linear Toward a Sustainable Circular and Bioeconomy 36.1.2 Biorefining as a Technological Advancement and Key Driver of a Circular Bioeconomy 36.2 Waste Biorefineries 36.2.1 Environmental Analysis of Waste Biorefineries 36.2.2 Biorefinery Waste Technological and Economic Analysis 36.2.3 The Role of Technology and Innovation Management in Waste Biorefineries 36.2.4 Environmental Benefits of Other Biorefinery Products 36.3 Biodiversity and Land Use Change 36.4 Impacts of COVID-19 Outbreak 36.4.1 New Age Innovations and Disruptions 36.5 Conclusion References Chapter 37: Incentivising Circular and Sustainable Innovations Through Patent Law 37.1 Introduction 37.2 Intellectual Property Law and Sustainability: An Overview 37.2.1 Patents and Biorefineries-Related Innovations: Conditions for Patentability as an Incentive for Sustainable Innovations 37.2.1.1 The European Patent Framework: Some Starting Points 37.2.1.2 Patentability Requirements: Perspectives from the European Framework 37.3 Incentivising `Sustainable´ Innovations via IPR: How to Strike a Balance in Patent Law? 37.4 Conclusion References Chapter 38: Industrial Economy and Technological Management in the Context of Waste Biorefineries 38.1 Introduction 38.2 Where and How OR and AI Can Come into Play 38.3 Case Study: Logistics Planning for Feedstock 38.3.1 Input and Problem Definition 38.3.2 Vehicle Routing Process and Optimisation Model 38.3.3 Clustering for Dispatching 38.3.4 Results and Analysis 38.4 Concluding Remarks and Open Issues References Chapter 39: Techno-economic Aspects and Circular Economy of Waste Biorefineries 39.1 Introduction 39.2 Policy and Issues Associated with Biorefinery 39.3 The Biomass Supply Chain in the Philippines 39.4 Green Chemistry and Biowaste Valorization 39.5 Challenges in the Techno-economic Aspects of Biorefinery in the Philippines 39.6 Economic Implications of the Competing Demands for Food and Bioenergy 39.7 Conclusion References Chapter 40: Unlocking the Global Potential of Waste Biorefining: Scaling Up or Scaling Down? 40.1 Background: Waste Biorefining as a Potential Means of Circular Bioeconomy 40.2 Waste Biorefinery Upstream: Waste Streams and Their Potential as Biorefinery Feedstocks 40.3 Waste Biorefinery Midstream: Factors Affecting the Large-Scale Technical Feasibility of Waste Biorefineries 40.3.1 Technology Readiness and Availability 40.3.2 Comparative Advantages of Urban Centers and Associated Waste Streams, Agri-food Industries, and Agroforestry Activities 40.3.3 Scale at Which the Supply and Demand of the Waste Meet 40.4 Waste Biorefinery Downstream: Creating Markets to Ensure Financial Viability of Biorefinery Products at Scale 40.5 Conclusions References Chapter 41: Development and Scale-Up of Waste Biorefineries Systems: Lactic Acid as a Case Study 41.1 Introduction 41.2 Bioprocess Upstream-Industrial Strains Development 41.3 Bioprocess Midstream-Fermentation 41.4 Bioprocess Downstream-Separations and Purification 41.4.1 Precipitation 41.4.2 Membrane Process Separation 41.5 Sustainability Assessment 41.5.1 Assessing the Economic Sustainability (Techno-economic Analysis) 41.5.1.1 Capital Cost (CAPEX) 41.5.1.2 Operational Cost 41.5.2 Assessing the Environmental Sustainability 41.5.3 Managing Risks References