Biophotonics: Concepts to Applications (Graduate Texts in Physics)

Description

This book introduces senior-level and postgraduate students to the principles and applications of biophotonics. It also serves as a valuable reference resource or as a short-course textbook for practicing physicians, clinicians, biomedical researchers, healthcare professionals, and biomedical engineers and technicians dealing with the design, development, and application of photonics components and instrumentation to biophotonics issues. The topics include the fundamentals of optics and photonics, the optical properties of biological tissues, light-tissue interactions, microscopy for visualizing tissue components, spectroscopy for optically analyzing the properties of tissue, and optical biomedical imaging. It also describes tools and techniques such as laser and LED optical sources, photodetectors, optical fibers, bioluminescent probes for labeling cells, optical-based biosensors, surface plasmon resonance, and lab-on-a-chip technologies. Among the applications are optical coherence tomography (OCT), optical imaging modalities, photodynamic therapy (PDT), photobiostimulation or low-level light therapy (LLLT), diverse microscopic and spectroscopic techniques, tissue characterization, laser tissue ablation, optical trapping, and optogenetics. Worked examples further explain the material and how it can be applied to practical designs, and the homework problems help test readers’ understanding of the text. This second edition provides updates as follows: 1) Updated references in each chapter with recent review papers, tutorials, and generic research results. 2) New sections in Chap. 3 addressing tapered fibers for sensors, biocompatibility issues of optical fibers, and concepts of implantable fibers. 3) Updates in Chaps. 4 and 5 on optical sources and photodetectors discussing fiber-based sources, silicon photomultipliers, and high-speed cameras for biosensing. 4): Sections on improvements in microscopy, imaging, spectroscopy, and sensing in Chapters 7–10. 5) New biophotonic application techniques in Chap. 11 will include optogenetic advances, smart phones for imaging, wearable biophotonic sensors, and robotic surgery and light therapy. Preface Acknowledgments Contents About the Author Abbreviations 1 Overview of Biophotonics Abstract 1.1 What Is Biophotonics? 1.2 Diverse Applications 1.3 Biophotonic Spectral Windows 1.4 Light Absorption 1.5 Decibel Notation for Signal Attenuation 1.6 Structures of Biological Cells and Tissues 1.6.1 Macromolecules 1.6.2 Biological Cells 1.6.3 Mitochondria 1.6.4 Biological Tissues and Organs 1.7 Summary References 2 Basic Principles of Light Abstract 2.1 Lightwave Characteristics 2.1.1 Monochromatic Waves 2.1.2 Pulsed Plane Waves 2.2 Polarization 2.2.1 Linear Polarization 2.2.2 Elliptical and Circular Polarization 2.3 Quantized Photon Energy and Momentum 2.4 Reflection and Refraction 2.4.1 Snells’ Law 2.4.2 The Fresnel Equations 2.4.3 Diffuse Reflection 2.5 Interference 2.6 Optical Coherence 2.7 Lightwave-Molecular Dipole Interaction 2.8 Summary References 3 Optical Fibers for Biophotonic Applications Abstract 3.1 Light Guiding Principles in Conventional Optical Fibers 3.1.1 Ray Optics Concepts 3.1.2 Modal Concepts 3.1.3 Mode Field Diameter 3.1.4 Effective Refractive Index 3.2 Graded-Index Optical Fibers 3.2.1 Core Index Structure 3.2.2 Graded-Index Numerical Aperture 3.2.3 Cutoff Condition in Graded-Index Fibers 3.3 Performance Characteristics of Generic Optical Fibers 3.3.1 Attenuation Versus Wavelength 3.3.2 Mechanical Properties 3.3.3 Optical Power-Handling Capability 3.3.4 Biocompatibility of Fibers for Medical Use 3.4 Conventional Solid-Core Fibers 3.5 Specialty Solid-Core Fibers 3.5.1 Photosensitive Optical Fiber 3.5.2 Fibers Resistant to UV-Induced Darkening 3.5.3 Bend Insensitive Fiber 3.5.4 Polarization-Maintaining Fiber 3.6 Double-Clad Fibers 3.7 Hard-Clad Silica Fibers 3.8 Coated Hollow-Core Fibers 3.9 Photonic Crystal Fibers 3.10 Plastic Fibers 3.11 Side-Emitting or Glowing Fibers 3.12 Middle-Infrared Fibers 3.13 Tapered Optical Fibers 3.14 Optical Fiber Bundles 3.15 Summary References 4 Fundamentals of Light Sources Abstract 4.1 Radiometry 4.1.1 Radiant Energy 4.1.2 Radiant Optical Flux and Power 4.1.3 Irradiance or Exposure Rate 4.1.4 Radiant Intensity 4.1.5 Radiant Exposure or Radiant Fluence 4.1.6 Radiance 4.2 Arc Lamps 4.3 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 4.3.1 LED Operation and Structures 4.3.2 LED Wavelengths and Device Uses 4.3.3 Modulation of an LED 4.4 Lasers for Biophotonics 4.4.1 Basic Laser Actions 4.4.2 Laser Diodes 4.4.3 External Modulation of Semiconductor Lasers 4.4.4 Solid-State Lasers 4.4.5 Gas Lasers 4.4.6 Optical Fiber Lasers 4.5 Supercontinuum Light Sources 4.6 Summary References 5 Fundamentals of Optical Detectors Abstract 5.1 The pin Photodetector 5.2 Avalanche Photodiodes 5.3 Photodiode Noises 5.3.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 5.3.2 Sources of Photodetector Noise 5.3.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio Limits 5.3.4 Noise-Equivalent Power and Detectivity 5.3.5 Photodiode Linear Response 5.3.6 Comparisons of Photodiodes 5.4 Multichannel Detectors 5.4.1 CCD Array Technology 5.4.2 CMOS Array Technology 5.4.3 Scientific CMOS 5.5 High-Performance Detectors 5.5.1 Photomultiplier Tubes (PMT) 5.5.2 Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPM) 5.6 Scientific Cameras 5.6.1 Frontside Versus Backside Illumination 5.6.2 Dynamic Range 5.6.3 Resolution 5.6.4 Response Speed 5.7 Optical Filters 5.8 Optical Couplers and Optical Circulators 5.9 Summary References 6 Light-Tissue Interactions Abstract 6.1 Reflection and Refraction Applications 6.1.1 Refraction in Ophthalmology 6.1.2 Specular Reflection 6.1.3 Diffuse Reflection 6.2 Absorption 6.2.1 Absorption Characteristics 6.2.2 Absorption in Biological Tissues 6.3 Scattering 6.3.1 Elastic Scattering 6.3.2 Rayleigh Scattering 6.3.3 Anisotropy Factor 6.3.4 Inelastic (Raman) Scattering 6.4 Scattering with Absorption 6.5 Light-Tissue Interaction Mechanisms 6.5.1 Photobiomodulation 6.5.2 Photochemical Interaction 6.5.3 Thermal Interaction 6.5.4 Photoablation 6.5.5 Plasma-Induced Photoablation 6.5.6 Photodisruption 6.6 Formation of Speckles 6.7 Fluorescence Basics 6.8 Summary References 7 Optical Probes and Biosensors Abstract 7.1 Overview of Biosensors and Probes 7.2 Optical Fiber Probe Configurations 7.3 Optical Fiber Tip Geometries 7.4 Optical Sensors 7.4.1 Biorecognition Optical Fiber Sensors 7.4.2 ELISA 7.4.3 Sensors Based on Optical Fiber Movements 7.4.4 Microbending Fiber Sensors 7.5 Interferometric Sensors 7.5.1 Mach–Zehnder Interferometer 7.5.2 Michelson Interferometer 7.5.3 Sagnac Interferometer 7.6 Photonic Crystal Fiber Biosensors 7.6.1 Interferometry Sensing Methods 7.6.2 Liquid Infiltration Sensor 7.7 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors 7.7.1 Smart-Bed FBG System 7.7.2 Distributed FBG-Based Catheter Sensor 7.8 Surface Plasmon Resonance Biosensors 7.9 Single Nanoparticle Detection 7.10 Summary References 8 Microscopy Abstract 8.1 Concepts and Principles of Microscopy 8.1.1 Viewing and Illumination Techniques 8.1.2 Observation Methods 8.1.3 Numerical Aperture 8.1.4 Field of View 8.1.5 Depth of Field 8.2 Resolution and Diffraction Limit 8.3 Confocal Microscopy 8.4 Fluorescence Microscopy 8.5 Multiphoton Microscopy 8.6 Raman Microscopy 8.7 Light Sheet Fluorescence Microscopy 8.8 Super-Resolution Fluorescence Microscopy 8.9 Expansion Microscopy 8.10 Summary References 9 Spectroscopic Methodologies Abstract 9.1 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 9.2 FRET/FLIM 9.2.1 Förster Resonance Energy Transfer 9.2.2 Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy 9.3 Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy 9.4 Elastic Scattering Spectroscopy 9.5 Diffuse Correlation Spectroscopy 9.6 Raman Spectroscopy 9.7 Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering Spectroscopy 9.8 Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering Spectroscopy 9.9 Stimulated Raman Scattering Spectroscopy 9.10 Photon Correlation Spectroscopy 9.11 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 9.12 Brillouin Light-Scattering Spectroscopy 9.13 Summary References 10 Optical Imaging Procedures Abstract 10.1 Optical Coherence Tomography 10.1.1 Time Domain OCT 10.1.2 Spectral Domain OCT 10.1.3 Swept Source OCT 10.2 Endoscopy 10.2.1 Basic Endoscopy 10.2.2 Minimally Invasive Surgery 10.2.3 Tethered Capsule Endomicroscopy 10.2.4 Microendoscopy 10.3 Laser Speckle Imaging 10.4 Optical Coherence Elastography 10.5 Photoacoustic Tomography 10.6 Hyperspectral Imaging 10.7 Summary References 11 Applications of Biophotonic Technologies Abstract 11.1 Optical Manipulation 11.2 Miniaturized Analyses Tools 11.2.1 Microfluidic Platforms Using LOC Technology 11.2.2 Lab-on-Fiber Concept 11.3 Photonics in Dentistry 11.3.1 Detection of Dental Caries 11.3.2 PDT Applications to Periodontal Diseases 11.4 Time-Correlated Single Photon Counting 11.5 Smartphone Spectrometers 11.6 Wearable Biophotonic Body Sensors 11.7 Optogenetics 11.8 Doppler OCT 11.9 Robotic Surgery 11.10 Summary References Index