An Introduction to Chemistry

Description

This textbook is written to thoroughly cover the topic of introductory chemistry in detail―with specific references to examples of topics in common or everyday life. It provides a major overview of topics typically found in first-year chemistry courses in the USA. The textbook is written in a conversational question-based format with a well-defined problem solving strategy and presented in a way to encourage readers to “think like a chemist” and to “think outside of the box.” Numerous examples are presented in every chapter to aid students and provide helpful self-learning tools. The topics are arranged throughout the textbook in a "traditional approach" to the subject with the primary audience being undergraduate students and advanced high school students  of chemistry. Preface Contents About the Authors 1 The World of Chemistry 1.1  Introduction Case Study—The Community of Chemists 1.2  Communication via the Language of Chemistry 1.2.1  Physical and Chemical Properties Example 1.1—Chemical and Physical Changes Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If… Practice 1.1 1.2.2  Classification of Matter 1.3  The Scientific Method Example 1.2—A Theory or a Law? Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If… Practice 1.2 1.4  Units and Measurement 1.4.1  The Système International and Its Base Units 1.4.2  Mass 1.4.3  Length 1.4.4  Time 1.4.5  Temperature 1.4.6  Amount of Substance 1.4.7  Electric Current 1.4.8  Luminous Intensity Example 1.3—Temperature Conversions Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…. Practice 1.3 1.4.9  Derived Units 1.4.10  Volume 1.4.11  Density Example 1.4—Identifying a Metal via Density Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If… Practice 1.4 1.4.12  Extensive and Intensive Properties Example 1.5—Extensive Versus Intensive Properties Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If… Practice 1.5 1.5  Conversions and Dimensional Analysis Example 1.6—Practice with Dimensional Analysis Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If… Practice 1.6 Example 1.7—Powers in Dimensional Analysis Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If… Practice 1.7 1.6  Uncertainty, Precision, Accuracy, and Significant Figures 1.6.1  Uncertainty 1.6.2  Accuracy and Precision 1.6.3  Significant Figures 1.6.4  Calculations Involving Significant Figures 1.6.5  When to Round Example 1.8—Significant Digits in Calculations Asking the Right Questions Solution Is the Answer Reasonable? What If… Practice 1.8 1.7  Chemical Challenges for a Sustainable World Anchor 77 2 A Quest for Understanding 2.1  Introduction 2.2  Early Attempts to Explain Matter 2.2.1  The Law of Conservation of Mass 2.2.2  The Law of Definite Composition Example 2.1—Investigating the Law of Definite Composition Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 2.1 2.3  Dalton’s Atomic Theory and Beyond 2.3.1  The Law of Combining Volumes 2.4  The Structure of the Atom 2.4.1  Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons 2.4.2  Radioactivity and the Structure of the Atom 2.5  Atoms and Isotopes 2.5.1  Isotopes Example 2.2—Atomic Bookkeeping Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 2.2 2.6  Atomic Mass Example 2.3—Calculating the Atomic Mass Value Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 2.3 2.7  The Periodic Table 2.8  Ionic Compounds Example 2.4—Ions Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 2.4 Example 2.5—Determining Formulas Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 2.5 2.9  Molecules 2.10  Naming Compounds 2.10.1  Naming Binary Covalent Compounds Example 2.6—Naming Binary Covalent Compounds Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 2.6 2.10.2 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Example 2.7—Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 2.7 Example 2.8—Naming Additional Compounds Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 2.8 2.10.3 Polyatomic Ions Example 2.9—Naming More Compounds Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 2.9 2.11  Naming Hydrates and Acids Example 2.10—Acids and Hydrates Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 2.10 Anchor 82 3 Chemical Calculations—Introducing Quantitative Chemistry 3.1  Introduction 3.2  Formula Masses Example 3.1—Calculating Formula Masses Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.1 3.3  Counting by Weighing 3.3.1  The Quantity We Call the Mole Example 3.2—How Many Molecules? Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.2 3.4  Working with Moles 3.4.1  Molecules to Moles and Back Again 3.4.2  Grams to Moles and Back Again Example 3.3—Molecules and Moles Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.3 Example 3.4—Calculating Masses Corresponding to Moles Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.4 Example 3.5—Calculating Moles Corresponding to Masses Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.5 Example 3.6—Grams to Molecules Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.6 3.5  Percentages by Mass Example 3.7—Calculating Mass Percent Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.7 3.6  Finding the Formula Example 3.8—Finding the Empirical and Molecular Formula Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.8 Example 3.9—Determining the Formula of Heme Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.9 3.7  Chemical Equations 3.7.1  Balancing Equations 3.7.2  More Information from the Equation 3.7.3  The Meaning of a Chemical Equation Example 3.10—Balancing Equations Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.10 3.8  Working with Chemical Equations 3.8.1  Limiting Reagent 3.8.2  Percent Yield Example 3.11—Determining Products from Reactants Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.11 Example 3.12—Determining Products from Reactants: Focus on Mole Ratios Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.12 Example 3.13—Calculations using Chemical Equations Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.13 Example 3.14—Calculating Yield and Limiting Reactant Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.14 Example 3.15—Percent Yield Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 3.15 Issues and Controversies—Everyday Controversies of Quantitative Chemistry Finding the Formula Anchor 110 4 Solution Stoichiometry and Types of Reactions 4.1  Introduction 4.2  Water—A Most Versatile Solvent 4.2.1  Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 4.2.2  Defining Electrolytes 4.3  The Concentration of Solutions Example 4.1—Calculating Molarity Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 4.1 Example 4.2—Calculating Moles Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 4.2 Example 4.3—Calculating Volumes Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 4.3 4.3.1 Parts per Million, Parts per Billion, and so on Example 4.4—Converting ppm to Molarity Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 4.4 4.3.2 Dilution Example 4.5—Practice with Dilution of Solutions Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 4.5 4.4  Stoichiometric Analysis of Solutions How do We Know?—How to Test for Small Amounts of Water Example 4.6—Practice with Titration Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 4.6 4.5  Types of Chemical Reactions 4.5.1  Molecular and Ionic Equations Example 4.7—The Three Equations Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 4.7 4.6  Precipitation Reactions Example 4.8—Identifying Precipitation Reactions Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 4.8 Example 4.9—The Stoichiometry of a Precipitation Reaction Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 4.9 4.7  Acid-Base Reactions 4.7.1  Strong Acids and Bases 4.7.2  Weak Acids and Bases 4.7.3  When Acids and Bases Combine Example 4.10—Stoichiometry of a Neutralization Reaction Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 4.10 4.8  Reduction-Oxidation Reactions 4.8.1  Oxidation Numbers Example 4.11—Assigning Oxidation States Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What if…? Practice 4.11 4.8.2 Identifying Oxidation–Reduction Reactions Example 4.12—Identifying Redox Reactions Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 4.12 4.9  Fresh Water—Issues of Quantitative Chemistry Anchor 94 5 Energy 5.1  Introduction 5.2  The Concept of Energy 5.2.1  Kinetic Energy Versus Potential Energy Example 5.1—Energy in Various Forms Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 5.1 NanoWorld/MacroWorld—Big Effects of the Very Small: Electrons Capturing Energy in Photosynthesis 5.2.2 Heat and Reaction Profile Diagrams 5.3  A Closer Look at Work Example 5.2—Work, Work, and More Work Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 5.2 5.3.1 Internal Energy Example 5.3—The First Law of Thermodynamics Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 5.3 5.4  The Units of Energy Example 5.4—Peanut Power! Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 5.4 5.5  Specific Heat Capacity and Heat Capacity Example 5.5—How Cold is the Liquid? Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 5.5 5.5.1 Calorimetry Example 5.6—Coffee Cup Calorimetry Calculations Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 5.6 Example 5.7—Calculations with a Bomb Calorimeter Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 5.7 5.6  Enthalpy 5.6.1  Standard Enthalpies of Reaction Example 5.8—Chemistry in Space Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 5.8 5.6.2  Manipulating Enthalpies Example 5.9—How Much Heat? Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 5.9 5.7  Hess’s Law 5.7.1  Using Hess’s Law Example 5.10—Using Hess’s Law Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 5.10 5.7.2 Reaction Enthalpies from Enthalpies of Formation Example 5.11—Thermite in Space Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 5.11 5.8  Energy Choices Anchor 85 6 Quantum Chemistry—The Strange World of Atoms 6.1  Introduction 6.1.1  What is Electromagnetic Radiation? 6.1.2  Is There a Relationship Between Wavelength and Frequency Example 6.1—Conversions Between Frequency and Wavelength Asking the Right Questions Solution Is the Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 6.1 6.1.3  Applications of Electromagnetic Radiation 6.1.4  The Relationship Between Frequency and Energy Example 6.2—The Energy of Electromagnetic Radiation Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 6.2 6.2  Atomic Emission, Absorption Spectroscopy and the Quantum Number 6.2.1  Obtaining the Hydrogen Spectrum 6.2.2  Exploring the Hydrogen Emission Spectrum Example 6.3—Using the Balmer Equation Asking the Right Questions Solution Is the Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 6.3 6.2.3  Application of Emission Spectra 6.3  The Bohr Model of Atomic Structure 6.3.1  Bohr’s Model 6.3.2  A Specific Energy is Associated with Each Orbit… 6.3.3  Energy Changes as Electrons Move Example 6.4—Energy-to-Frequency Conversion in the Hydrogen Atom Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 6.4 6.3.4  Some Applications of Excited Atoms 6.4  Wave-Particle Duality 6.4.1  Wave-Particle Duality 6.4.2  Can a Particle Act as a Wave? Example 6.5—Working with the de Broglie Equation Asking the Right Questions Solution Is the Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 6.5 6.5  The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 6.5.1  The Limitations of Applying Quantum-Level Calculations Example 6.6—Photons and Momentum Asking the Right Questions Solution Is the Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 6.6 6.6  The Mathematical Language of Quantum Chemistry 6.6.1  The Application of Schrödinger’s Equation 6.6.2  Orbitals 6.7  Atomic Orbitals 6.7.1  Relating Quantum Numbers to Orbitals 6.7.2  s Orbitals 6.7.3  p Orbitals 6.7.4  d Orbitals 6.7.5  f Orbitals Example 6.7—Quantum Numbers Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 6.7 6.8  Only Two Electrons per Orbital: Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 6.8.1  Revisiting the Significance of Quantum Numbers 6.9  Orbitals and Energy Levels in Multielectron Atoms 6.9.1  The Impact of Electron Shielding in a Multielectron Atom 6.10  Electron Configurations and the Aufbau Principle Example 6.8—Practice with Electron Configurations Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 6.8 6.10.1  Putting Quantum Chemistry into Action: The Blocks of the Periodic Table Anchor 84 7 Periodic Properties of the Elements 7.1  Introduction 7.2  The Big Picture—Building the Periodic Table Example 7.1—Identifying Elements Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 7.1 7.2.1  The Historical Development of the Periodic Table 7.3  The First Level of Structure—Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids Example 7.2—Heavy Metals, Both Necessary and Toxic Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 7.2 z NanoWorld/MacroWorld—Big Effects of the Very Small: The Diversity of Steels 7.4  The Next Level of Structure—Groups in the Periodic Table 7.4.1  Group 1 (IA): Hydrogen and the Alkali Metals 7.4.2  Group 2(IIA): The Alkaline Earth Metals 7.4.3  Group 13 (IIIA) 7.4.4  Group 14 (IVA) 7.4.5  Group 15 (VA) 7.4.6  Group 16 (VIA): The Chalcogens 7.4.7  Group 17 (VIIA): The Halogens 7.4.8  Group 18 (VIIIA): The Noble Gases NanoWorld/MacroWorld—The Big Effects of the Very Small—Everblasting Gobstoppers at the Edge of Absolute Zero Example 7.3—A Group Activity Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 7.3 7.4.9  Groups 3–12 (IB–VIIIB): The Transition Elements 7.4.10  The Elements of Life 7.5  The Concept of Periodicity Example 7.4—Explaining the Periods Between Periodicities Asking the Right Questions Solution Is the Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 7.4 7.6  Atomic Size 7.7  Ionization Energies Example 7.5—Implications of Ionization Energy Trends Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 7.5 Example 7.6—Differences in Ionization Energies Asking the Right Questions Solution Is the Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 7.6 7.8  Electron Affinity Example 7.7—Trends Asking the Right Questions Solution Is the Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 7.7 7.9  Electronegativity Example 7.8—Trends in Electronegativity Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 7.8 7.10  Reactivity 7.10.1  The Reactivity Series of Metals 7.11  The Elements and the Environment Anchor 75 8 Bonding Basics 8.1  Introduction 8.2  Modeling Bonds 8.2.1  Three Kinds of Bonds 8.2.2  Lewis Dot Symbols 8.2.3  Electron Configuration of Ions 8.2.4  Octet Rule Example 8.1—Writing Lewis Dot Symbols Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 8.1 8.3  Ionic Bonding 8.3.1  Description of Ionic Bonding 8.3.2  Examples of Ionic Bonding 8.3.3  Ions: Does Size Matter? 8.3.4  Energy of the Ionic Bond Example 8.3 Predicting Lattice Enthalpies Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 8.3 8.4  Covalent Bonding 8.4.1  Description of Covalent Bonding 8.4.2  Electronegativity and the Covalent Bond 8.4.3  Types of Covalent Bonding 8.4.4  Modeling a Covalent Bond—Lewis Structures 8.4.6  Resonance Structures 8.4.5  Formal Charges Example 8.2—Ionic Compound Formation Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 8.2 Nanoworld-Macroworld: The Big Effects of the Very Small.—Chlorophyll, Tie-Dying and Visible Light 8.4.7  Exceptions to the Octet Rule 8.4.8  Energy of the Covalent Bond Example 8.4 What Type of Bond Is It? Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 8.4 Example 8.5 Return to Basics Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 8.5 Example 8.6 Chemical Warfare and Bonding Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 8.6 Example 8.7 Calculating the Enthalpy of Combustion Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 8.7 8.5  VSEPR—A Better Model Issues and Controversies—Flat molecules and ethics in science 8.5.1  The VSEPR Model 8.5.2  Examples of Three-Dimensional Structures Using the VSEPR Model 8.5.3  Advanced Thoughts on the VSEPR Model Example 8.8 Ozone and VSEPR Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 8.8 Example 8.9 A Closer Look at Ozone Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 8.9 8.6  Properties of Ionic and Molecular Compounds 8.6.1  Bond Dipoles 8.6.2  Dipole Moment 8.6.3  Polar Versus Nonpolar Example 8.10 Does CHCl3 Have a Dipole Moment? Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 8.10 Anchor 92 9 Advanced Models of Bonding 9.1  Introduction 9.2  Valence Bond Theory 9.2.1  What is a Valence Bond? Example 9.1—Modifications to the Structure of HF Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 9.1 9.2.2 Application of Valence Bond Theory Example 9.2—Using Valence Bond Theory: Warp Drive? Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 9.2 9.2.3 What’s Wrong with This Model? 9.3  Hybridization 9.3.1  Hybridization Defined 9.3.2  sp, sp2, and sp3 Orbitals Example 9.3—Hybridization in Common Molecules Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 9.3 9.3.3 Shapes of the Hybrids Example 9.4—Shapes of the Molecules Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 9.4 9.3.4 sp3d and sp3d2 Orbitals 9.3.5 Multiple Bonds: Sigma and Pi Bonds Example 9.5—The Bonds of Acetylene Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 9.5 9.3.6 Application of Hybridization Theory: Bond Lengths Example 9.6—Bond lengths of C—C Single Bonds Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 9.6 9.3.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hybridization Example 9.7—Using Hybridization: Will the Molecule Be Solid or Liquid? Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 9.7 9.4  Molecular Orbital Theory 9.4.1  Molecular Orbital Theory Defined 9.4.2  Shapes of Orbitals and the Strengths of Bonds 9.4.3  MO Diagrams Example 9.8—MO Power Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 9.8 9.4.4 More About MO Diagrams Example 9.9—MO Theory: The Power of a Photon Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 9.9 9.5  Putting It All Together Anchor 75 10 The Behavior and Applications of Gases 10.1  The Nature of Gases 10.2  Production of Hydrogen and the Meaning of Pressure Example 10.1—Calculating Force Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.1 Example 10.2—Conversion Among Measures of Pressure Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.2 10.3  Mixtures of Gases—Dalton’s Law and Food Packaging Example 10.3—Partial Pressure of Gases in the Atmosphere Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.3 10.4  The Gas Laws—Relating the Behavior of Gases to Key Properties 10.4.1  Avogadro’s Law Example 10.4—Avogadro’s Law Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.4 10.4.2 Boyle’s Law Example 10.5—Boyle’s Law Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.5 10.4.3 Charles’s Law Example 10.6—Charles’ Law Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.6 Example 10.7—Mendeleev’s Demonstration of Nonideal Behavior Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.7 10.4.4 Combined Gas Equation Example 10.8—Combined Gas Equation Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.8 10.5  The Ideal Gas Equation Example 10.9—Using the Ideal Gas Equation Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.9 Example 10.10—The Ideal Gas Equation and Compressed Gas Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.10 10.5.1 Volume Corrections for Real Gases 10.5.2 Pressure Corrections for Real Gases Example 10.11—The van der Waals Equation Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.11 10.6  Applications of the Ideal Gas Equation 10.6.1  Physical Change Applications Example 10.12—An Application of Gas Density Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.12 10.6.2 Chemical Reactions—Automobile Air Bags Example 10.13—Filling the Airbag Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.13 10.6.3 Chemical Reactions—Acetylene Example 10.14—Production of Acetylene Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.14 10.7  Kinetic-Molecular Theory 10.7.1  Using the Assumptions About Gas Behavior to Rationalize the Gas Laws Example 10.15—The Importance of Assumptions Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.15 10.8  Effusion and Diffusion 10.8.1  A Closer Look at Molecular Speeds Example 10.16—The RMS Speed of Gases Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.16 10.8.2 Diffusion Example 10.17—Effusion Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 10.17 10.9  Industrialization: A Wonderful, yet Cautionary, Tale 10.9.1  Ozone NanoWorld/MacroWorld The Big Effects of the Very Small: Accumulation of Ozone at the Earth’s Surface 10.9.2  The Greenhouse Effect and Global Climate Change Anchor 128 11 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces 11.1  An Introduction to Water 11.2  The Structure of Liquids 11.3  A Closer Look at Intermolecular Forces 11.3.1  London Dispersion Forces—Induced Dipoles 11.3.2  Permanent Dipole–Dipole Forces 11.3.3  Hydrogen Bonds Example 11.1—Molar Mass, Structure, London Forces, and Boiling Point Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 11.1 Example 11.2—Comparing the Boiling Points Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 11.2 11.4  Impact of Intermolecular Forces on the Physical Properties of Liquids: Phase Changes Issues and Controversies—Using Phase Changes to Clean Water 11.4.1 Vapor Pressure 11.4.2 Boiling Point 11.4.3 Heating Curves Example 11.3—Comparing Vapor Pressures Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 11.3 Example 11.4—An Implication of Vapor Pressure Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 11.4 Example 11.5—Using the Clausius–Clapeyron Equation Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 11.5 Example 11.6—Calculating Vapor Pressure Via the Clausius–Clapeyron Equation Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 11.6 Example 11.7—Energy Changes Upon Heating the Water Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 11.7 11.5  Phase Diagrams Example 11.8—Reading Phase Diagrams Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 11.8 How Do We Know—The Moons of Jupiter 11.6  Impact of Intermolecular Forces on the Physical Properties of Liquids: Other Properties 11.6.1  Viscosity 11.6.2  Surface Tension 11.6.3  Capillary Action 11.7  The Structure of Crystals 11.7.1  Types of Solids 11.7.2  Crystal Lattices 11.7.3  Metallic Crystals Example 11.9—Matching Asking the Right Questions What Do I Need to Know? Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 11.9 11.8  Crystallography and the Unit Cell 11.8.1  Liquid Crystals Example 11.10—There’s a Lot of Room in Here Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 11.10 Example 11.11—He Isn’t Heavy, He’s Dense Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 11.11 11.9  Metals 11.9.1  Alloys 11.9.2  Amalgams Example 11.12—The Color of Paint Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 11.12 Anchor 101 12 The Chemistry of Water: Aqueous Solutions and Their Properties 12.1  Introduction 12.2  Water: The Universal Solvent 12.2.1  Why Do so Many Substances Dissolve in Water? NanoWorld/MacroWorld: The Big Effects of the Very Small—Removing Non-polar Substances from Water Example 12.1—Predicting Solubility Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 12.1 12.2.2  Colloids 12.3  Measures of Solution Concentration 12.3.1  Measures Based on Moles Example 12.2—Practice with Mole-Based Units of Concentration Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 12.2 12.3.2  Measures Based on Mass Example 12.3—Conversion Between Mole and Mass Concentration Units Asking the Right Questions Solution Is the Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 12.3 12.4  The Effect of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility 12.4.1  Temperature Effects 12.4.2  Pressure Effects Example 12.4—Henry’s Law and CO2 in Soda Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 12.4 12.5  Colligative Properties 12.5.1  Vapor Pressure Lowering Example 12.5—Vapor Pressure Lowering Asking the Right Questions Solution Is the Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 12.5 12.5.2  Boiling-Point Elevation Example 12.6—Boiling Point Elevation Asking the Right Questions Solution Is the Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 12.6 12.5.3  Freezing-Point Depression 12.5.4  Osmosis Example 12.7—Osmosis and You Asking the Right Questions Solution Is the Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 12.7 12.5.5  Reverse Osmosis 12.5.6  Back to the Future Anchor 62 13 Chemical Kinetics 13.1  Introduction 13.2  Reaction Rates 13.2.1  Instantaneous Rate, Initial Rate, and Average Rate Example 13.1—Rate of the Haber Process Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 13.1 Example 13.2—The Rate of a Reaction Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 13.2 13.3  An Introduction to Rate Laws Example 13.3—The Rate Law Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 13.3 13.3.1 Collision Theory 13.4  Changes in Time—The Integrated Rate Law 13.4.1  Integrated First-Order Rate Law Example 13.4—The Rate Law Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 13.4 13.4.2  Half-Life Example 13.5—How Long Will It Take? Asking the Right Questions What Do I Need to Know? Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 13.5 13.4.3 Other Rate Laws 13.5  Methods of Determining Rate Laws Example 13.6—Initial Rates Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 13.6 Example 13.7—Determining the Reaction Order Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 13.7 13.6  Looking Back at Rate Laws 13.7  Reaction Mechanisms Example 13.8—Rate Laws Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 13.8 13.7.1  Transition State Theory Example 13.9—Energy Barrier Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 13.9 13.8  Applications of Catalysts NanoWorld/MacroWorld: The Big Effects of the Very Small: Enzymes—Nature’s Catalysts Anchor 72 14 Chemical Equilibrium 14.1  Introduction 14.2  The Concept of Chemical Equilibrium 14.2.1  Definitions of Equilibrium Example 14.1—Equilibrium Concentrations Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 14.1 Example 14.2—The Mass-Action Expression Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 14.2 Example 14.3—Practice with Mass-Action Expressions Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 14.3 14.3  Why Is Chemical Equilibrium a Useful Concept? 14.4  The Meaning of the Equilibrium Constant How Do We Know?—Equilibrium and Chromatographic Analysis Example 14.4—Interpreting K Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 14.4 14.4.1 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Equilibria 14.5  Working with Equilibrium Constants Example 14.5—Reversing the Reaction Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What if…? Practice 14.5 14.5.1 Combining Reactions to Describe a Process 14.5.2 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations from K and Other Concentrations 14.5.3 Using Partial Pressures Example 14.6—Converting K to Kp Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 14.6 14.6  Solving Equilibrium Problems—A Different Way of Thinking 14.6.1  A Case Study Example 14.7—Predicting the Direction of Equilibrium Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 14.7 14.6.2 Small Value of K Example 14.8—Concentration of Lead Ion in Saturated Lead Bromide Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 14.8 14.6.3 Large Value of K Example 14.9—The Myoglobin–Oxygen System Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 14.9 14.6.4 Intermediate Value of K 14.6.5 In Summary 14.7  Le Châtelier’s Principle 14.7.1  Changes in Concentration 14.7.2  Changes in Pressure 14.7.3  Changes in Temperature Example 14.10—Le Châtelier’s Principle Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 14.10 14.7.4 The Importance of Catalysts Anchor 84 15 Acids and Bases 15.1  Introduction 15.2  What Are Acids and Bases? Example 15.1—Acids, Bases, and Their Conjugates Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.1 Example 15.2—Ammonia as a Base Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.2 15.3  Acid Strength 15.3.1  Strong and Weak Acids Example 15.3—Relative Acid Strength Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.3 Example 15.4—Strength of the Conjugates Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.4 15.3.2 The Different Strengths of Acids Example 15.5—Which Acid is Stronger? Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.5 NanoWorld-MacroWorld: The Big Effects of the Very Small—Superacids and Superbases Example 15.6—Concentrated Versus Dilute Strong Acids Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.6 15.4  The pH Scale Example 15.7 Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.7 Example 15.8—[H+] and pH: One Implication Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.8 15.4.1 Water and the pH Scale Example 15.9—Water in a Pristine Lake Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.9 15.5  Determining the pH of Acidic Solutions 15.5.1  PH of Strong Acid Solutions Example 15.10—Calculating the pH of a Strong Acid Solution Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.10 15.5.2 Le Châtelier’s Principle and the Supply of Hydroxide Ion in Acidic Solutions 15.5.3   pH of Weak Acid Solutions Example 15.11—pH of a Weak Acid Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.11 15.5.4 pH of a Mixture of Monoprotic Acids 15.6  Determining the pH of Basic Solutions Example 15.12—pH of a Strong Base Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.12 Example 15.13—pH of a Weak Base Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.13 15.7  Issues and Controversies—Nicotine and pH Control in Cigarettes 15.7  Polyprotic Acids 15.7.1  The pH of Polyprotic Acids Example 15.14—Concentration of Species in a Polyprotic Acid Solution Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.14 15.8  Assessing the Acid–Base Behavior of Salts in Aqueous Solution 15.8.1  The Relationship of Ka to Kb Example 15.15—pH of a Salt containing a Cation with No Acidic Properties Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.15 Example 15.16—pH of Zwitterions Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 15.16 15.9  Anhydrides in Aqueous Solution Anchor 118 16 Applications of Aqueous Equilibria 16.1  Introduction 16.2  Buffers and the Common-Ion Effect 16.2.1  The Impact of Le Châtelier’s Principle on the Equilibria in the Buffer 16.2.2  Buffer Preparation 16.2.3  The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation: We Proceed, but with Caution 16.2.4  Buffer Capacity 16.2.4.1  Change 1: Addition of a Strong Acid 16.2.4.2  Change 2: Addition of a Strong Base 16.2.4.3  Change 3: Exceeding the Buffer Capacity 16.2.5  Food for Thought: Are Strong Acids and Bases Buffers? Example 16.1—Alternative Route to the pH of the Buffer Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.1 Example 16.2—Practice Calculating the Initial pH of a Buffer Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.2 Example 16.3—Practice with Buffer Preparation Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.3 Example 16.4—More Practice with Buffer Preparation Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.4 Example 16.5—The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.5 Example 16.6—Buffer Capacity Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.6 Example 16.7—Keeping the pH Within Specified Limits Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.7 NanoWorld/MacroWorld—Big Effects of the Very Small: Buffers in Biochemical Studies and Medicine 16.3  Acid–Base Titrations 16.3.1  Strong-Acid–Strong-Base Titrations 16.3.1.1  Part 1: Initial pH 16.3.1.2  Part 2: Addition of 5.00 mL of NaOH Solution 16.3.1.3  Part 3: Addition of a Total of 12.50 mL of NaOH Solution 16.3.1.4  Part 4: Addition of a Total of 24.00 mL of NaOH Solution 16.3.1.5  Part 5: Addition of a Total of 25.00 mL of NaOH Solution 16.3.1.6  Part 6: Addition of a Total of 40.00 mL of NaOH Solution Example 16.8—Titrating Sodium Hydroxide with Hydrochloric Acid Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.8 16.3.2 Acid–Base Titrations in Which One Component is Weak and One is Strong 16.3.2.1 Part 1: Initial pH 16.3.2.2 Part 2: Addition of 5.00 mL of NaOH Solution 16.3.2.3 Part 3: Addition of 12.50 mL of NaOH Solution 16.3.2.4 Part 4: Addition of a Total of 24.00 mL of NaOH Solution 16.3.2.5 Part 5: Addition of a Total of 25.00 mL of NaOH Solution Part 6: Addition of a Total of 40.00 mL of NaOH Solution 16.3.3 Summarizing the Key Ideas of the Weak-Acid–Strong-Base Titration Discussion Example 16.9—Titrating a Weak Base with a Strong Acid Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.9 16.3.4 Indicators Example 16.10—Picking an Indicator Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.10 16.4  Solubility Equilibria 16.4.1  Side Reactions that Affect Our Reaction of Interest Issues and Controversies—Side Reactions and Activities 16.4.2 Calculating Molar Solubility Example 16.11—How Much Dissolves? Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.11 Example 16.12—Calculating Ksp Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.12 16.4.3 Solubility, Precipitation, and Gravimetric Analysis 16.4.4 To Precipitate or Not to Precipitate Example 16.13—Will It Make a Solid? Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.13 16.4.5 Acids, Bases, and Solubility 16.5  Complex-Ion Equilibria 16.5.1  Introducing the Formation Constant 16.5.2  Extending the Discussion to EDTA 16.5.3  The Importance of the Conditional Formation Constant Example 16.14—Conditional Formation Constant Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.14 Example 16.15—Data for a Calcium–EDTA Analysis Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 16.15 Anchor 131 17 Thermodynamics: A Look at Why Reactions Happen 17.1  Introduction 17.2  Probability as a Predictor of Chemical Behavior Example 17.1—Probability Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 17.1 17.3  Why Do Chemical Reactions Happen? Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics Example 17.2—Spontaneity in Common Processes Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 17.2 17.3.1  Entropy 17.3.2 The Second Law Example 17.3—Reaction Spontaneity Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 17.3 17.4  Temperature and Spontaneous Processes NanoWorld/MacroWorld: The Big Effects of the Very Small—Industrial uses for the Extremophiles Example 17.4—Entropy Change at a Phase Change Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 17.4 17.5  Calculating Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions Example 17.5—Predict the Sign Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 17.5 Example 17.6—Calculating ΔS° Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 17.6 17.6  Free Energy Example 17.7—Spontaneity and Biochemical Reactions Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 17.7 17.6.1  A Second Way to Calculate ∆G 17.6.2  Free Energy of Formation Example 17.8—I’m Hungry. What’s for Dinner? Free Energy and Spontaneity Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 17.8 17.7  When ΔG = 0; Link to Equilibrium Example 17.9—Temperature Dependence of ΔG Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 17.9 17.7.1  Changes in Pressure Affect Spontaneity 17.7.2  Changes in Concentrations Affect Spontaneity 17.7.3  Coupled Reactions Issues and Controversies—ATP—It’s part of a bigger system 17.8  Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant Example 17.10—Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 17.10 Anchor 79 18 Electrochemistry 18.1  Introduction How Do We Know? DNA Profiling 18.2  What is Electrochemistry? 18.3  Oxidation States—Electronic Bookkeeping Example 18.1—Oxidation States Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 18.1 Issues and Controversies—Destruction of the RMS Titanic Example 18.2—The Electrochemistry of Smog Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 18.2 18.4  Redox Equations 18.4.1  Half-Reactions 18.4.2  Balancing Redox Reactions 18.4.3  Manipulating Half-Cell Reactions Example 18.3—Spontaneity and Potential Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 18.3 Example 18.4—Balancing Redox Equations in Acidic Solutions Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 18.4 Example 18.5—Balancing Redox Equations in Basic Solutions Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 18.5 Example 18.6—Dissolving Gold Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 18.6 18.5  Electrochemical Cells 18.5.1  Electrochemical Cells in the Laboratory 18.5.2  Cell Notation 18.5.3  Batteries 18.5.4  The Chemistry of Some Common Batteries Example 18.7—Alkaline Batteries Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 18.7 Example 18.8—Shorthand Notation Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 18.8 18.6  Chemical Reactivity Series Example 18.9—Which Is More Reactive? Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 18.9 18.7  Not-So-Standard Conditions: The Nernst Equation 18.7.1  The Nernst Equation and the Equilibrium Constant Example 18.10—Heart Cell Potential Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 18.10 Example 18.11—Equilibrium Constants and Cell Potential Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What if…? Practice 18.11 18.8  Electrolytic Reactions 18.8.1  The Applications of Electrolysis 18.8.2  Calculations Involving Electrolysis Example 18.12—Golden Forks Asking the Right Questions Solution Is our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 18.12 Anchor 94 19 Coordination Complexes 19.1  Introduction 19.2  Bonding in Coordination Complexes 19.3  Ligands Example 19.1—Identifying Possible Ligands Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 19.1 19.4  Coordination Number How Do We Know?—What is the Nature of the Structure, Bonding, and Reactivity in Cisplatin? 19.5  Structure Example 19.2—Coordination Number and Geometry Asking the Right Questions? Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 19.2 19.6  Isomers 19.7  Formulas and Names 19.7.1  Formulas 19.7.2  Nomenclature Example 19.3—Naming Compounds Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 19.3 19.8  Color and Coordination Compounds 19.8.1  Transition Metals and Color 19.8.2  Crystal Field Theory 19.8.3  Octahedral Crystal Field Splitting 19.8.4  Tetrahedral Crystal Field Splitting 19.8.5  Square Planar Crystal Field Splitting 19.8.6  Orbital Occupancy 19.8.7  Octahedral Complexes 19.8.8  Tetrahedral Complexes 19.8.9  Square Planar Complexes Example 19.4—Drawing Crystal Field Diagrams Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 19.4 19.8.10  The Result of d Orbital Splitting 19.8.11  Magnetism 19.9  Chemical Reactions 19.9.1  Ligand Exchange Reactions 19.9.2  Electron Transfer Reactions Anchor 51 20 Nuclear Chemistry 20.1  Introduction 20.2  Isotopes and More Isotopes Example 20.1—Decoding Isotopes Anchor 5 Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 20.1 20.3  Types of Radioactive Decay 20.3.1  Beta-Particle Emission 20.3.2  Alpha-Particle Emission 20.3.3  Gamma-Ray Emission 20.3.4  Other Types of Radioactive Decay 20.3.5  Decay Series Example 20.2—Beta Emissions In and Around Us Asking the Right Questions Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 20.2 Example 20.3—Alpha Emissions In and Around Us Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 20.3 20.4  Interaction of Radiation with Matter 20.5  The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay Example 20.4—Half-life Calculations: Here Today, Gone Tomorrow? Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 20.4 20.6  Mass and Binding Energy Example 20.5—The Energy Advantage of Nuclear Reactions Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What if…? Practice 20.5 Example 20.6—Working With Binding Energy Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 20.6 20.7  Nuclear Stability and Human-Made Radioactive Nuclides Example 20.7—Ten Tin Isotopes Asking the Right Questions Solution Are our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 20.7 20.8  Splitting the Atom: Nuclear Fission Issues and Controversies—The Manhattan Project 20.8.1  Nuclear Reactors as a Vital Source of Electricity Example 20.8—Fission: A Chain Reaction Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 20.8 20.9  Medical Uses of Radioisotopes 20.9.1  Tracer Isotopes for Diagnosis Example 20.9—123I and 131I: Cousins But Not Twins Asking the Right Questions Solution Is the Answer Reasonable? What if…? Practice 20.9 How Do We Know?—Imaging with Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Anchor 74 21 Carbon 21.1  Introduction 21.2  Elemental Carbon 21.2.1  Diamond 21.2.2  Graphite 21.2.3  Fullerenes 21.3  Crude Oil—The Basic Resource 21.4  Hydrocarbons 21.4.1  Alkanes 21.4.2  Branched-Chain Alkanes: Isomers of the Normal Alkanes 21.4.3  Naming the Alkanes 21.4.4  Cyclic Alkanes 21.4.5  Alkenes 21.4.6  Alkynes 21.4.7  Geometric Isomers 21.4.8  Aromatic Hydrocarbons 21.4.9  Alkyl Groups Example 21.1—Finding the Isomers Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 21.1 Example 21.2—Care with General Formulas Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 21.2 Example 21.3—Cis and Trans Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 21.3 Example 21.4—Naming with Alkyl Groups Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 21.4 21.5  Separating the Hydrocarbons by Fractional Distillation How Do We Know?—Which Hydrocarbons Are in Crude Oil? 21.6  Processing Hydrocarbons 21.6.1  Cracking 21.6.2  Reforming 21.6.3  Gasoline 21.7  Typical Reactions of the Alkanes 21.8  The Functional Group Concept Example 21.5—Functional Groups and You! Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 21.5 21.9  Ethene, the C=C Bond, and Polymers 21.10  Alcohols 21.11  From Alcohols to Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids 21.12  From Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids to Esters Example 21.6—Nomenclature of Esters Asking the Right Questions Solution Are the Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 21.6 21.13  Condensation Polymers 21.14  Polyethers 21.15  Handedness in Molecules Example 21.7—Chiral Drugs Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? 21.16  Organic Chemistry and Modern Drug Discovery 21.16.1  Taxol Example 21.8—Taxol as a Drug Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 21.8 Example 21.9—Nomenclature of Esters Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 21.9 Anchor 88 22 The Chemistry of Life 22.1  Introduction 22.2  DNA—The Basic Structure 22.2.1  DNA Replication—The Secret of Reproduction Example 22.1—What Exactly is DNA? Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 22.1 Example 22.2—Using the Template Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 22.2 22.3  Proteins 22.4  How Genes Code for Proteins 22.4.1  Transcription—Making the Message 22.4.2  Translation—Making Proteins 22.4.3  Protein Folding Example 22.3—Examining the Genetic Code Asking the Right Questions Solution Are Our Answers Reasonable? What If…? Practice 22.3 22.5  Enzymes 22.5.1  Cofactors, Coenzymes, and Protein Modifications 22.5.2  The General Classes of Enzymatic Reactions Example 22.4—What is It Doing? Asking the Right Questions Solution Is Our Answer Reasonable? What If…? Practice 22.4 NanoWorld/MacroWorld—The Big Effects of the Very Small: Vitamins and Disease Vitamin D Vitamin A Vitamin E Vitamin C Vitamin B1 22.6  The Diversity of Protein Functions 22.6.1  Proteins as Enzymes 22.6.2  Proteins as Transporters 22.6.3  Proteins as “Movers and Shakers” 22.6.4  Proteins as Scaffolding and Structure 22.6.5  Proteins as Messengers 22.6.6  Proteins as Receptors 22.6.7  Proteins as Gates and Pumps 22.6.8  Proteins as Controllers 22.6.9  Proteins as Defenders 22.6.10  Glorious Complexity 22.7  Carbohydrates 22.8  Lipids 22.9  The Maelstrom of Metabolism 22.9.1  Breaking Things Down and Building Them up Again 22.10  Biochemistry and Chirality 22.11  A Look to the Future 22.11.1  Antibiotics 22.11.2  Anticancer Agents 22.11.3  Hormones and Their Mimics 22.11.4  Neurotransmitters 22.11.5  Genetic Disease Anchor 65