Panjabi: A Comprehensive Grammar

Description

Panjabi: A Comprehensive Grammar is a complete reference guide to Panjabi grammar. It presents a fresh, accessible and thorough description of the language, concentrating on the real patterns of use in modern Panjabi. The book moves from the script and sound through morphology and word classes to a detailed analysis of sentence structures and semantic features. The volume is organized to promote a thorough understanding of Panjabi grammar. It offers a stimulating analysis of the complexities of the language, and provides full and clear explanations. Throughout, the emphasis is on Panjabi as used by present-day native speakers. An extensive index and numbered paragraphs provide readers with easy access to the information they require. Cover Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents Preface Introductory Note: How to use this book Notational and Typographical Conventions Abbreviations Part I: General Introduction Chapter 1 Panjabi Language, Scripts and Grammar: A Spatio-temporal Perspective 1.1 Panjabi – a very brief history 1.2 The “Panjabi-speaking” areas 1.3 The Panjabi scripts 1.3.1 Shahmukhi 1.3.2 Gurmukhi 1.4 Panjabi grammar Chapter 2 Language as a Social Semiotic or Cultural Tool Part II: Phonetics, Phonology and Script Chapter 3 Panjabi Sounds and Script 3.1 The Panjabi “alphabet” 3.2 The phonetic transcription 3.3 Names of the letters 3.4 Panjabi pronunciation 3.4.1 Panjabi stop consonants 3.4.2 Panjabi continuant consonants 3.4.2.1 Fricatives 3.4.2.2 Frictionless continuants 3.4.3 More recent additions 3.5 Vowel bearer letters 3.6 Panjabi vowel symbols 3.6.1 CV sequences (or basic syllables) 3.6.2 Nasalised vowels 3.6.3 Homorganic nasals 3.6.4 Long consonants 3.7 Subscript characters 3.7.1 Subscript 3.7.2 Subscript 3.7.3 Subscript 3.8 Panjabi vowel and consonant diagram and chart 3.9 There are more things in Panjabi… Chapter 4 Tone and Related Phenomena in Panjabi 4.1 Panjabi as a “tone language” 4.2 Pitch accent or tone in Panjabi 4.3 Tone and the voiced aspirated (breathy voiced) stop consonants in Panjabi 4.3.1 Voiced aspirated (breathy voiced) stops and tones 4.4 h and the Panjabi tones 4.4.1 Subscript h 4.4.2 Full h 4.5 Intonation in Panjabi 4.5.1 Major intonation contours in Panjabi 4.5.2 Mixing of intonation contours within a sentence 4.6 Interaction of the tonal and the intonational pitches 4.7 Homophonous and homographic words in Panjabi 4.8 When did the tones appear in Panjabi? 4.9 Monosyllabic words in Panjabi? 4.10 Strong stress in Panjabi 4.10.1 Weakening and centring of the unstressed vowels 4.10.2 Preference for closed syllables Part III: Grammar and Meaning Chapter 5 Panjabi Grammar in Outline 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Word classes or “parts of speech” in Panjabi 5.3 The concept of the “phrase” 5.4 Canonical finite clause patterns in Panjabi 5.5 Formal, functional, semantic and discourse related categories 5.6 More examples of the four canonical clauses 5.7 Complements and adjuncts 5.8 Finite clause in Panjabi 5.9 Noun phrase and other phrases in Panjabi Chapter 6 Noun and Noun Phrase 6.1 The three-way characterisation of nouns in Panjabi 6.1.1 Classification of nouns in Panjabi 6.2 Number and gender in Panjabi 6.2.1 Number and gender in common nouns 6.2.2 Number and gender in mass and collective nouns 6.3 Noun morphology in Panjabi 6.4 “Synthetic” case forms in Panjabi 6.4.1 Instrumental dual “synthetic” case forms 6.4.2 Locative plural “synthetic” case forms 6.4.3 Ablative singular “synthetic” case forms 6.4.4 Locative singular “synthetic” case forms 6.5 Pronouns in Panjabi 6.5.1 Personal pronouns 6.5.2 Demonstratives (“third person pronouns”) 6.5.3 Possessive adjectives 6.5.4 Reflexive pronoun 6.5.5 Other pronouns 6.5.6 Possessive adjectives and adjectives used as pronouns 6.6 Structure of the noun phrase in Panjabi 6.7 Historical perspective 6.8 From a Panjabi folk song Chapter 7 Adjective, Adjective Phrase, Adverb and Adverb Phrase 7.1 The three-way characterisation of adjectives in Panjabi 7.2 Determiners and full adjectives 7.3 Classification of Panjabi full adjectives 7.4 “Black” and “red” adjectives 7.4.1 Perfect participles ending in -iā used as adjectives 7.4.2 Adjectives ending in-īā 7.5 Adjectives used as pronouns 7.6 Adverbs in Panjabi 7.6.1 Classification of Panjabi adverbs 7.6.2 Pre-modifier and post-modifier adverbs 7.7 I-words, U-words, J-words and K-words 7.8 Adjective phrase and adverb phrase 7.9 Other phrases and constructions playing an adjectival and adverbial role Chapter 8 Postpositions and Postpositional Phrases in Panjabi 8.1 The three-way characterisation of postpositions in Panjabi 8.2 The three classes of postpositions 8.2.1 Single-word uninflecting postpositions 8.2.2 Single-word inflecting postpositions 8.2.3 Postpositions derived from the inflected case-forms of nouns, or postpositions with locative meaning 8.3 Postpositions/adverbs with ablative meaning 8.4 Metaphorical use of postpositions 8.5 Chained postpositional phrases 8.6 More about metaphorical use of postpositions Chapter 9 Verb and Verb Phrase 9.1 The meaning potential of a verb in the traditional Indian linguistic tradition 9.2 Verb phrase and main verbs in Panjabi 9.3 Three layers of inflections on verb stems 9.4 Classification of main verbs in Panjabi 9.5 Further classification of Class 1 verbs 9.6 Class 2 verbs 9.7 Suppletion 9.8 Where the idea of verb “phases” come from Chapter 10 Auxiliary Verbs and the Copula 10.1 The redundant category of “tense” in Panjabi grammar 10.2 Types of auxiliary verbs in Panjabi 10.2.1 Older auxiliaries 10.2.2 Explicator auxiliaries 10.3 The copular-existential verb (copula) in Panjabi 10.4 The copula outside the VP 10.5 Other developments in the grammar of the Panjabi copula Chapter 11 Tense, Mood and Aspect 11.1 Main constituents of the verb phrase in Panjabi 11.2 Personal inflectional forms of full verbs, (explicator) auxiliaries and the copula 11.2.1 The subjunctive (unmarked) form 11.2.2 Addition of the post-verb-gā to the sunbjunctive (unmarked) form 11.2.3 The copula 11.2.3.1 Omission of hai in negative clauses 11.3 The imperative 11.4 Imperfect participle form 11.4.1 Morphology of the imperfect participle form 11.4.2 Semantics of the imperfect participle form 11.4.3 Imperfect participle and the subtractive phases of verb stems 11.4.4 Imperfect participle form as an adjective 11.5 Perfect participle form 11.5.1 Morphology of the perfect participle form 11.5.2 Semantics of the perfect participle form 11.5.3 Perfective participle form as an adjective 11.5.4 Perfect participle form as a nominal 11.5.5 The process of regularisation 11.5.6 Question of the “certainty” modality and the Panjabi reporting verb kahi 11.6 Conjunctive participle form 11.6.1 Conjunctive participle with an explicator auxiliary 11.6.2 Conjunctive participle with the post-Verb ke 11.6.3 Conjunctive participle form as a nominal 11.6.4 Special cases of kar ke and rajj ke 11.7 Potential participle form 11.7.1 Morphology of the potential participle form 11.7.2 The gerund 11.7.3 Semantics of the potential participle and the gerund Chapter 12 Case-marking and Verb-agreement 12.1 Agreement of the verb with an NP in the clause 12.2 The meaning of an inflected verb form in Panjabi 12.3 Agreement of the verb 12.3.1 Agreement of subjunctive form and subjunctive+ gā form 12.3.2 Agreement of the imperfect participle form 12.3.3 Agreement of the perfect participle form 12.3.4 Agreement of the potential participle form 12.3.5 The imperative use of the potential participle or gerund 12.4 Spatial symbolism and metaphors elsewhere in Panjabi sentence structure 12.4.1 “Experiencer” constructions in Panjabi 12.5 Other “experiencer”-like constructions 12.5.1 Physical and mental perception, acts of remembering and forgetting 12.5.2 Skills 12.5.3 The verb cāhīdā 12.5.4 Compulsion and obligation 12.6 Causative constructions 12.6.1 Class 1 verbs 12.6.2 Class 2 verbs 12.7 The Location Event Structure Metaphor Chapter 13 Serial Verb Constructions 13.1 What is not included in an SVC 13.2 The inner dialectics of an SVC 13.2.1 General semantics 13.2.2 Special semantics of rahi and of pai 13.2.3 Two conjunctive participles in a cluster 13.2.4 Semantic valency 13.3 Syntactic behaviour of of the members of an SVC 13.3.1 The pivot of an SVC 13.3.2 Blending of semantic and syntactic behaviour of the members of an SVC 13.3.3 The interesting history of liā 13.3.4 Main features of the conjunctive participle+ (explicator) auxiliary cluster 13.4 Structure and features of a longer SVC 13.4.1 The pivot in a longer SVC 13.5 Order of the members and the use of particles within an SVC 13.5.1 How to go on doing something in Panjabi 13.6 “Passive voice” in Panjabi 13.6.1 The Panjabi SVC with prototypical “passive” meaning 13.6.2 Remnants of the older passive voice in modern Panjabi Chapter 14 Expanding Basic Clauses or Simple Sentences 14.1 Expanding a canonical clause pattern 14.1.1 Expanding and elaborating an NP in a simple sentence 14.1.2 Gerund used in place of a noun 14.2 Qualifying a VP in a clause or simple sentence 14.2.1 Qualifying a VP with an adverb in a clause or simple sentence 14.2.2 Postpositional phrase in an adverbial role 14.2.3 Non-finite clauses 14.2.4 Imperfect participle plus-ā 14.2.5 Perfect participle plus-ā 14.2.6 Conjunctive participle plus ke 14.2.7 karke as postposition Chapter 15 Compound and Complex Sentences 15.1 Compound sentences 15.1.1 Co-ordination and co-ordinators 15.1.2 Additive and cumulative co-ordinators 15.1.3 Contrastive and alternative co-ordinators 15.1.4 Consequential co-ordinators 15.1.5 Restrictions on co-referential omission 15.1.6 Emphatic words kāhdā and thoṛhe 15.2 Complex sentences 15.2.1 Subordinate nominal clause as the SUBJECT 15.2.2 Subordinate nominal clause as the OBJECT 15.2.3 Relative (or adjectival) clauses 15.2.4 Adverbial clauses 15.3 Mixed sentences 15.3.1 Compound-complex sentences 15.3.2 Complex-compound sentences Chapter 16 Above and Beyond the Sentence: Discourse, Text and Cohesion 16.1 “Above” and “beyond” the sentence 16.2 Definite patient OBJECT 16.3 Tinkering with the SOV word order 16.3.1 The “dative subject” or “experiencer subject” 16.4 Cohesion in text and discourse 16.4.1 Co-referential omission 16.4.2 Pro-forms 16.4.3 Particles and echoing of old information 16.5 Word order again: the “given” and the “new” information Chapter 17 A Little Bit of Derivational Morphology 17.1 Some productive tendencies in Panjabi derivational morphology 17.2 Some commonly used prefixes and suffixes 17.2.1 Commonly used prefixes 17.2.1.1 Prefixes borrowed from or via Persian 17.2.2 Commonly used suffixes 17.2.2.2 Suffixes borrowed from or via Persian 17.2.3 Arabic and Persian suffixes used by speakers of Panjabi 17.2.4 Summing up the Arabic and Persian “influence” on Panjabi grammar 17.3 A semi-productive way of deriving verbs in Panjabi 17.4 Other frequently used combinations and “ingestive” verbs 17.5 Phases of some Panjabi verbs Chapter 18 On Shahmukhi 18.1 A brief history of Shahmukhi 18.2 The Naskh and the Nastaleeq styles 18.3 The Shahmukhi alphabet 18.4 Positional variants of the Shahmukhi letters 18.4.1 Positional variants of the connector letters 18.4.2 Non-connector letters 18.5 The Gurmukhi and the Shahmukhi systems compared 18.5.1 For an ordinary day-to-day use, no script is “better” than the other 18.6 Gurmukhi and Shahmukhi: structural comparison 18.6.1 Gurmukhi and Shahmukhi vowel systems 18.6.2 Absence of letters for some Panjabi consonants in Shahmukhi 18.6.3 No “symbol for symbol” correspondence between the two systems 18.6.4 Tonal pronunciation 18.6.5 More than one letter for a single sound 18.7 Spellings of the Arabic words in Shahmukhi Part IV Appendices, Glossary and Indexes Appendix 1 Using a Panjabi (Gurmukhi) Dictionary Appendix 2 Repetition of Words, Echo Words etc. 1. Repetition of words (i) Repetition to express the idea of a prolonged state or activity (ii) Repetition to convey the idea of intensity (iii) Combining a Panjabi and a Persian word (iv) Repetition to express the idea of “all of them” 2. Using synonymous or semantically related words 3. Echo words 4. Dismissive words 5. Insult words Appendix 3 Panjabi Numbers and Expressions of Time 1. Numbers (i) Cardinal numbers (ii) Ordinal numbers (iii) Fractions (iv) Panjabi numerals 2. Expressions of time (i) Hours (ii) Times of the day (iii) Days of the week (iv) Months Glossary Explanation of Technical Terms and Abbreviations 1. Phonetics and phonology 2. Grammar and semantics References Index of Grammatical Words Subject Index