Electrochemistry for Bioanalysis

Description

Electrochemistry for Bioanalysis provides a comprehensive understanding of the benefits and challenges of the application of electrochemical and electroanalytical techniques for measurement in biological samples. The book presents detailed information on measurement in a host of various biological samples from single cells, tissues and in vivo. Sections cover real insights surrounding key experimental design and measurement within multiple complex biological environments. Finally, users will find discussions on emerging topics such as electrogenerated chemiluminescence and the use of additive manufacturing for biosensor fabrication.  Continuous learning reinforcement throughout the book, including problems for self-assessment, make this an ideal resource. Front Cover Half title Full title Copyright Contents Contributors 1 - Introduction to electrochemistry for bioanalysis Keypoints Principles Applications in bioanalysis 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Bioanalysis 1.2.1 Where is my biomolecule? 1.3 Principles of electrochemistry 1.3.1 The electrochemical reaction 1.3.2 The electrochemical cell Summary 2 - Amperometry and potential step techniques Keypoints Principles Applications in bioanalysis Strengths Limitations 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Principles 2.2.1 Amperometry 2.2.2 Chronoamperometry 2.2.3 Multiple-potential steps 2.2.4 Pulsed amperometric detection (PAD) 2.3 Strengths and limitations 2.4 Applications 2.5 Summary References 3 - Voltammetry Keypoints Principles Applications in bioanalysis Strengths Limitations 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Principles 3.2.1 Differential pulse voltammetry 3.2.2 Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry 3.3 Strengths and limitations 3.4 Applications 3.4.1 DPV for discriminating analytes 3.4.2 FSCV in model organisms 3.4.3 FSCV beyond dopamine 3.4.4 Techniques to measure basal changes 3.5 Summary References 4 - Microelectrodes and nanoelectrodes Keypoints Principles Applications in bioanalysis Strengths Limitations 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Carbon fiber microelectrodes 4.2.1 Making carbon fiber microelectrodes 4.2.2 Types of carbon fiber microelectrodes 4.2.3 Electrochemical behavior of carbon fiber microelectrodes 4.2.4 Modification of carbon fiber microelectrodes 4.2.4.1 Electrochemical pretreatment 4.2.4.2 Chemical pretreatment 4.2.4.3 Film coatings 4.3 Microelectrode arrays 4.4 Nanoelectrodes 4.5 Summary References 5 - Novel sensing materials and manufacturing approaches Keypoints Principles Applications in bioanalysis Strengths Limitations 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Novel carbon materials for generation of electrodes 5.2.1 Carbon nanotubes 5.2.1.1 Preparation of carbon nanotubes 5.2.1.1.1 Arc discharge method 5.2.1.1.2 Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) 5.2.1.1.3 Laser ablation method 5.2.1.2 Making carbon nanotube sensors 5.2.2 Boron-doped diamond 5.2.2.1 Fabrication of bdd electrodes 5.2.3 Graphene 5.3 Carbon composite electrodes 5.3.1 Making carbon composite electrodes 5.3.2 Electrochemistry on composite electrodes 5.4 3D printing for development of electrodes 5.4.1 Photopolymerization 5.4.2 Extrusion 5.5 Summary References 6 - Experimental design – challenges in conducting electrochemical measurements for bioanalysis Keypoints Principles Applications in bioanalysis Important parameters to consider when developing bioanalytical methods 6.1 Key factors that influence bioanalytical measurements 6.2 Electrode and instrumentation variables 6.2.1 Sensitivity, calibration, and detection limits 6.2.2 Spatial resolution 6.2.3 Stability 6.2.3.1 Fouling from large biomolecules 6.2.3.2 Fouling from redox by-products 6.2.3.3 Accounting for electrode fouling 6.2.4 Electrode drift and noise 6.2.5 Sampling 6.3 Experimental variables 6.3.1 Measurement environment conditions 6.3.3 Flow and perfusion 6.4 Biological environment 6.4.1 Viability 6.4.2 Signalling processes 6.4.3 Manipulating the analyte concentration in the biological environment 6.5 Summary References 7 - Electrochemistry at and in single cells Keypoints Principles Applications in bioanalysis Strengths Limitations 7.1 Introduction 7.2 General introduction of exocytosis 7.3 Basic history at electrochemistry at/in cells 7.4 Electrodes for single cell and subcellular analysis 7.5 Cellular techniques to study exocytotic neurotransmitter release 7.5.1 Amperometry 7.5.2 Patch amperometry 7.5.3 Other techniques 7.6 Dynamics of exocytotic release revealed through interpretation of single-cell amperometric data 7.6.1 Analysis of the pre-spike foot and post-spike foot 7.7 Modeling exocytosis and closing of the fusion pore 7.7.1 Modeling exocytotic release and characteristics of fusion pore 7.7.2 Understanding the closing of the fusion pore 7.8 Applications of amperometry in neuroscience research 7.9 Intracellular electrochemistry 7.9.1 History of intracellular electrochemistry 7.9.2 Patch amperometry for studying cytoplasmic catecholamine concentration 7.9.3 Vesicle impact electrochemical cytometry (VIEC) 7.9.3.1 Development of VIEC 7.9.3.2 Mechanistic aspects regarding vesicle rupture and opening during VIEC 7.9.4 Development and mechanism of intracellular vesicle impact electrochemical cytometry (IVIEC) 7.9.5 The combination of SCA, iviec and viec to study exocytotic release 7.10 Measurements of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) at/in single cells 7.10.1 General introduction of ros/rns 7.10.2 History of electrochemical ros/rns measurements 7.10.3 Small probes for ROS/RNS release 7.10.4 ROS/RNS in cells and iviec 7.11 Enzyme-based electrodes for single cell analysis 7.11.1 Cholesterol in membranes 7.11.2 Glutamate/Superoxide anions in single cells 7.12 Scanning electrochemical microcopy (SECM) at single cells 7.13 Summary References 8 - Measurement from ex vivo tissues Keypoints Principles Applications in bioanalysis Strengths Limitations 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Ex vivo tissues – what are they? 8.2.1 Benefits and limitations of using ex vivo tissues 8.3 Experimental considerations for measuring ex vivo tissues 8.3.1 Tissue preservation 8.3.2 Interfacing electrodes to the ex vivo tissue 8.4 Studies conducted using ex vivo tissues 8.4.1 Co-culture of cells and cultured 3D structures 8.4.2 Brain slices 8.4.2 Lymph nodes 8.4.3 Adrenal glands 8.4.4 Kidneys 8.4.5 Arteries and veins 8.4.6 Digestive tract 8.5 Measurements from ex vivo organs from simple biological models 8.5.1 Invertebrates 8.5.2 Zebrafish 8.6 Future directions 8.7 Summary References 9 - In vivo electrochemistry Keypoints Principles Applications in bioanalysis Strengths Limitations 9.1 Introduction 9.2 What are in vivo measurements? 9.3 Strengths and limitations of in vivo experimentation 9.4 Criteria for ideal in vivo measurements 9.5 Electrochemical techniques 9.5.1 Electrochemical measurements in vivo – a historical perspective 9.5.2 Method development - Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) 9.5.3 Sensor development 9.6 Experimental optimization for acute and chronic in vivo measurement 9.6.1 Type of electrode 9.6.2 Sensor placement 9.6.3 Reference electrodes 9.6.4 Electrochemical method 9.6.5 Background/capacitive signal 9.6.6 Anaesthesia versus freely moving 9.6.7 Electrode calibration 9.7 Measurements in vivo 9.7.1 Measurements in the brain 9.7.2 Acute monitoring 9.7.3 The need for acute ambient level measurements 9.7.4 Chronic measurements 9.8 Measurements in different regions of the body 9.9 Summary and future directions References 10 - Measurement in biological fluids Keypoints Principles Applications in bioanalysis Strengths Limitations 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Different biological fluids 10.3 Blood 10.3.1 Measurement from different blood cells 10.3.2 Measurement within whole blood 10.4 Urine 10.5 Saliva 10.6 Sweat 10.7 Interstitial fluid 10.8 Tear fluid 10.9 Future directions 10.10 Summary References 11 - Measurement of reactive chemical species Keypoints Principles Applications in bioanalysis Strengths Limitations 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Reactive oxygen species (ROS) 11.3 Reactive nitrogen species (RNS) 11.4 Role of ros/rns in biology 11.5 Electrochemistry of ros/rns 11.5.1 Challenges in electrochemical monitoring of ros/rns 11.6 Electrode modifications to measure ros/rns 11.6.1 Selective film coatings 11.6.2 Chemically modified electrodes 11.6.3 Biologically modified electrodes 11.7 Measurement of reactive species from biological environments 11.8 Summary References 12 - Electrochemical biosensors Keypoints Principles Applications in bioanalysis Strengths Limitations 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Types of enzymatic biosensors 12.2.1 First generation biosensors 12.2.2 Second generation biosensors 12.2.3 Third generation biosensors 12.3 Immobilization of enzymes on electrode surfaces 12.4 Factors that influence the performance of biosensor measurements 12.5 Application of biosensors 12.5.1 Determination of glutamate 12.5.2 Monitoring acetylcholine and choline 12.5.3 Determination of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 12.6 Summary Further reading References 13 - Electrogenerated chemiluminescence (ECL) Key points Principles Applications in analysis Strengths Limitations 13.1 Electrogenerated chemiluminescence introduction 13.1.1 ECL overview 13.2 Electrochemistry and ECL 13.2.1 Thermodynamics relevance to ECL 13.2.2 Heterogeneous kinetics relevance to ECL 13.2.3 Mass transport and ECL 13.2.4 Chronoamperometry and ECL 13.2.5 Potential sweep methods and ECL 13.3 Electron transfer theory and ECL 13.3.1 Electron transfer history 13.3.2 Electron transfer and ECL 13.4 ECL history 13.4.1 ECL discovery 13.4.2 Early ecl characterization 13.4.3 Early ecl luminophores 13.4.4 ECL mechanism development 13.5 ECL instrumentation 13.5.1 ECL instrumentation for application development 13.5.2 ECL instrumentation for fundamental research 13.6 ECL simulation 13.6.1 ECL simulation methods 13.6.2 Development of ecl simulations 13.7 ECL materials development 13.7.1 Novel ecl luminophore development 13.7.2 ECL enhancement through functionalization 13.8 Conclusions and perspectives References Index Back Cover