Alternative Fuels

Description

Environmentally acceptable alternative fuels are in demand. This book dicusses the energy resources that are directly tied to the alleviation of petroleum dependence, and the science and technology in the area of alternative fuels. Various process treatments leading to cleaner and better use of existing fuel resources are discussed. This comprehensive reference book is consistent and is helpful for students and researchers. Cover Half Title Series Title Copyright CONTENTS Preface 1 GLOBAL ENERGY OVERVIEW 1.1 U.S. Energy Supplies 1.2 World Primary Energy Production 1.3 Crude Oil Reserves 1.4 Supplies of Natural Gas in the United States 1.5 Coal Overview 1.6 Nuclear Energy 1.7 Electric Power Generation from Renewable Energy Sources 1.8 Energy, Environment, and Economy 1.8.1 Energy Appetite 1.8.2 Environmental Issues 1.8.3 Development of Alternative Fuels References Problems 2 COAL, COAL DERIVATIVES, AND COAL PRODUCTS 2.1 Coal as a Source of Conventional Fuel 2.1.1 Coal Petrography 2.1.2 Structure and Chemistry of Coal 2.1.3 Characterization of Coal 2.1.4 Power Generation by Coal Combustion 2.1.5 Environmental Regulations 2.1.6 SOx/NOx Problem 2.1.7 Ash Disposal Problem 2.1.8 Particulate Emission Control 2.1.9 Acid Rain 2.1.10 Greenhouse Effect 2.1.11 Safety Issues in Coal Mining 2.1.12 Safety and Economic Issues in Coal Transportation 2.1.13 Future and Trend Analysis 2.2 Coal as a Source of Clean Fuel 2.2.1 Environmental Acceptability 2.2.2 International Programs 2.3 Environmental Issues of Coal Mining 2.3.1 Abandoned Mining Sites 2.3.2 Spoil Piles or Gob Piles 2.3.3 Dust 2.3.4 Water Runoff 2.3.5 Blasting 2.3.6 Noise References Problems 3 COAL GASIFICATION: SYNTHESIS OF SYNGAS, FUELS, AND PETROCHEMICALS 3.1 Introduction 3.2 High-, Medium-, and Low-Btu Gases 3.3 Various Syngas Generation Processes 3.3.1 Historical Background 3.3.2 General Aspects of Gasification 3.3.3 Classification 3.3.4 Gasification Processes 3.3.5 Modeling of Different Coal Gasifiers 3.4 Various Chemical Reactions in Gasification 3.4.1 Steam Gasification 3.4.2 Boudouard Reaction 3.4.3 Hydrogasification 3.4.4 Water Gas Shift Reaction 3.4.5 Partial Combustion 3.4.6 Kinetics of Gasification 3.4.7 Thermodynamics of Coal Gasification 3.4.8 Chemical Mechanisms 3.4.9 Design Criteria References Problems 4 COAL LIQUEFACTION FOR ALTERNATIVE LIQUID FUELS 4.1 Liquefaction of Coal: Background 4.2 Coal Pyrolysis for Liquid Fuel 4.2.1 COED Process 4.2.2 TOSCOAL Process 4.2.3 Lurgi-Ruhrgas Process 4.2.4 Occidental Flash Pyrolysis Process 4.2.5 Clean Coke Process 4.2.6 Coalcon Process 4.3 Direct Liquefaction of Coal 4.3.1 Bergius-IG Hydroliquefaction Process 4.3.2 H-Coal Process 4.3.3 Solvent Refined Coal (SRC-I) 4.3.4 Exxon Donor Solvent (EDS) Process 4.3.5 SRC-II Process 4.3.6 Nonintegrated Two-Stage Liquefaction (NTSL) 4.3.7 Thermal Integrated Two-Stage Liquefaction (ITSL) 4.3.8 Catalytic Two-Stage Liquefaction (CTSL) 4.3.9 Evolution of Liquefaction Technology 4.4 Indirect Liquefaction of Coal 4.4.1 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis for Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuels 4.4.2 Conversion of Syngas to Methanol 4.4.3 Conversion of Methanol to Gasoline 4.5 Coal-Oil Coprocessing References Problems 5 INTEGRATED GASIFICATION COMBINED CYCLE TECHNOLOGY 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Alternative Clean Coal Technologies 5.2 IGCC Technology Overview 5.2.1 Cold Gas Cleanup 5.2.2 Hot Gas Cleanup 5.2.3 IGCC or MCFC 5.2.4 Advances in the IGCC Field 5.2.5 Introduction of a Fuel Cell into a Combined Cycle 5.2.6 Parallel Compound Dual-Fluid Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant 5.2.7 CO2 Capture in CC and IGCC Power Plants Using a CO2 Gas Turbine 5.2.8 Development of Advanced Gas Turbine Systems 5.3 Clean Coal Technology (CCT) Program 5.3.1 IGCC for Acid Rain Control 5.3.2 Cool Water IGCC Plant 5.3.3 Economics of IGCC 5.3.4 Repowering and Coprocessing 5.3.5 Phased Construction 5.3.6 Integrating Thermal Energy Storage in Power Plants 5.3.7 Biomass Fueled Cogeneration 5.3.8 IGCC Coproducing Electricity and Fertilizer (1GCC/F) References Problems 6 COAL SLURRY FUEL 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Coal Slurry Characterization 6.2.1 Particle Size Distribution 6.2.2 Rheology 6.2.3 Stability 6.2.4 Suspension Types 6.2.5 Interparticle Interactions 6.3 Coal-Water Slurry 6.4 Coal-Oil Slurry 6.5 Advanced Transport 6.6 Combustion 6.7 Environmental Issues 6.8 Recent Advances and Future References Problems 7 OIL SHALE AND SHALE OIL 7.1 Properties of Oil Shale and Shale Oil 7.1.1 Physical and Transport Properties 7.1.2 Thermal Characteristics of Oil Shale Minerals 7.1.3 Electric Properties of Oil Shale 7.1.4 Molecular Consideration of Kerogen 7.1.5 Boiling Range Distributions of Various Shale Oils 7.2 Oil Shale as Synthetic Fuel Source 7.3 Constraints in Shale Oil Production 7.3.1 Technological Constraints 7.3.2 Economic and Financial Constraints 7.3.3 Environmental Constraints 7.4 Research Needs in Oil Shale 7.4.1 Chemical Characterization 7.4.2 Correlation of Physical Properties 7.4.3 Mechanisms of Retorting Reactions 7.4.4 Heat and Mass Transfer Problems 7.4.5 Upgrading Shale Oil Crudes 7.4.6 By-Product Minerals from U.S. Oil Shale 7.4.7 Characterization of Inorganic Matters in Oil Shale 7.5 Oil Shale Retorting and Extraction Processes 7.5.1 Ex Situ Retorting Processes 7.5.2 In Situ Retorting Processes 7.5.3 Shale Oil Refining and Upgrading References Problems 8 TAR SANDS 8.1 What Are Tar Sands? 8.1.1 Tar Sand Reserves 8.1.2 Definitions 8.1.3 Recoverability of Synthetic Crude 8.1.4 Major Tar Sand Deposits 8.2 Properties of Tar Sands 8.2.1 Elemental Properties 8.2.2 Properties of Tar Sand Bitumen 8.2.3 Geochemistry of Tar Sands 8.2.4 Classification of Bituminous Materials 8.3 Tar Sand Processes 8.3.1 In Situ Thermal Processing of Tar Sands 8.3.2 Ex Situ Thermal Processing of Tar Sands 8.3.3 Hot Water Separation 8.4 Outlook References Problems 9 UTILIZATION OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 9.1 Geothermal Energy 9.1.1 History of Geothermal Energy 9.1.2 What Is Geothermal Energy? 9.1.3 Need for Geothermal Energy 9.1.4 Occurrence of Geothermal Energy 9.1.5 Advantages of Geothermal Energy 9.2 Statistical Information on Geothermal Energy 9.2.1 Geothermal Energy (World) 9.2.2 U.S. Energy Sources 9.3 Scientific and Technology Updates 9.3.1 Scientific Updates 9.3.2 Technology Updates 9.4 Past, Current, and Future 9.4.1 Current 9.4.2 Future 9.5 Processes and Applications 9.5.1 Processes 9.5.2 Applications References Problems 10 BIOMASS CONVERSION 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Thermal Conversion 10.2.1 Direct Combustion 10.2.2 Gasification 10.2.3 Liquefaction 10.2.4 Pyrolysis 10.3 Biological Conversion: Anaerobic Digestion 10.4 Fuel Ethanol Fermentation 10.4.1 Introduction 10.4.2 Agricultural Lignocellulosic Feedstocks 10.4.3 Enzymatic Processes 10.4.4 Lignin Conversion 10.4.5 Energy Balance for Ethanol Production from Biomass References Problems 11 ALTERNATIVE SOURCE OF ENERGY FROM SOLID WASTES 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Energy Recovery from Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) 11.2.1 Introduction 11.2.2 Gasification 11.2.3 Digestion of MSW 11.2.4 Pyrolysis of MSW 11.3 Energy Generation from Polymeric Wastes 11.3.1 Introduction 11.3.2 Mechanical Recycling 11.3.3 Waste-to-Energy Processes 11.4 Fuel Production from Spent Tires 11.4.1 Introduction 11.4.2 Pyrolysis 11.4.3 Partial Oxidation via Supercritical Water Oxidation 11.4.4 Others References Problems INDEX