Nuclear Waste Management: Science, Technology, and Policy

Description

This book lays a comprehensive foundation for addressing the issue of safety in the lifecycle of nuclear waste. With the focus on the fundamental principles, the book covers key technical approaches to safety in the management of spent nuclear fuel, reprocessed high-level waste, low-level waste, and decommissioning wastes. Behaviors of nuclear waste in natural and engineered systems in relation to safety assessment are also described through the explanation of fundamental processes. For any country involved with the use of nuclear power, nuclear waste management is a topic of grave importance. Although many countries have heavily invested in nuclear waste management, having a successful national program still remains a major challenge. This book offers substantial guidance for those seeking solutions to these problems. As the problem of nuclear waste management is heavily influenced by social factors, the connection between technical and social issues in nuclear waste management is also discussed. The book is a core text for advanced students in nuclear and environmental engineering, and a valuable reference for those working in nuclear engineering and related areas. Preface Contents Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 The Nuclear Waste Problem 1.2 Brief Overview of Nuclear Waste Generation 1.3 Conclusion Homework Further Reading References Chapter 2: Policy and Regulations for Nuclear Waste Management 2.1 Role of Policy 2.2 How Policy Is Made 2.2.1 Agenda Setting 2.2.2 Policy Formulation 2.2.3 Policy Adoption 2.2.4 Policy Implementation 2.2.5 Policy Evaluation 2.2.6 Policy Change 2.2.7 Policy Termination 2.3 Policy Analysis and Decision-Making Models 2.3.1 Policy Analysis 2.3.2 Cost-Benefit Analysis 2.3.3 Decision Analysis 2.4 Development of Laws, Standards, and Regulations 2.4.1 National Law 2.4.1.1 What Is Nuclear Waste (Q1)? 2.4.1.2 Who Are Responsible for the Management of Nuclear Waste (Q2)? 2.4.2 Regulations and Standards 2.4.2.1 How Safe Is Safe? What Is the Acceptable Level of Risk (Q3)? De Minimis Risk Comparative Risk Approach Risk Benefit Analysis Comparative Observations 2.4.2.2 Who Should Be Protected (Q4)? 2.4.2.3 How Long Should the Prescribed Level of Safety Be Provided (Q5)? 2.4.2.4 What Approach Should Be Used to Assure Safety (Q6)? 2.4.2.5 How Do We Verify Safety (Q7)? 2.4.2.6 How Should the Environment Be Protected in Comparison with Protecting Public Health (Q8)? 2.5 Conclusion Homework Further Reading References Chapter 3: Basic Nuclear Science and Engineering 3.1 Science of Radiation 3.1.1 What Is Radiation and Why Is It Produced? 3.1.2 Ionizing Radiation 3.1.3 Types and Characteristics of Ionizing Radiation 3.1.4 Natural Radioactivity 3.1.5 Man-Made Production of Radioactivity 3.1.6 General Description of Radioactive Decay 3.1.7 Decay Chains 3.2 Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter 3.2.1 Directly or Indirectly Ionizing Radiation 3.2.2 Interaction of Directly Ionizing Radiation with Matter 3.2.3 Interaction of Indirectly Ionizing Radiation 3.2.3.1 Cross Sections 3.2.3.2 Interactions of Photons with Matter 3.2.3.3 Interactions of Neutrons with Matter 3.3 Nuclear Reactors 3.3.1 Types of Nuclear Reactors 3.3.2 Fuel for Nuclear Reactors 3.3.3 The Process of Fission in Thermal Nuclear Reactors 3.3.4 Products of Nuclear Fission 3.3.5 Nuclear Criticality Control 3.4 Conclusion Homework Further Readings References Chapter 4: Basic Chemical Science for Nuclear Waste Management 4.1 Chemical Properties 4.1.1 Electron Energy Levels 4.1.2 Types of Elements and the Periodic Table 4.1.3 Chemical Bonds 4.2 Basics of Chemical Reactions 4.2.1 Free Energy in Chemical Reactions 4.2.2 Equilibrium Constant 4.3 Types of Chemical Reactions 4.3.1 Acid-Base Reactions 4.3.1.1 The Concept of pH 4.3.2 Dissolution-Precipitation Reactions 4.3.3 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 4.3.3.1 Basic Definitions 4.3.3.2 Half-Reactions 4.3.3.3 Log of Electron Activity ``pe´´ and Oxidation (``Redox´´) Potential 4.3.3.4 Measurements of Oxidation Potential 4.3.4 Complexation Reactions 4.3.5 Sorption 4.3.6 Biodegradation of Organic Matter 4.3.7 Role of Temperature 4.4 Conclusion Homework Further Reading References Chapter 5: Science of Risk and Radiation Protection 5.1 Biological Effects of Radiation 5.1.1 Interaction Mechanisms in a Biological System 5.1.2 Stages in Radiation Interaction with Biological Systems 5.1.3 Interactions of Radiation with Biological Targets 5.1.3.1 Interactions of Different Particles in Tissues 5.1.3.2 Factors Influencing Biological Effects 5.1.3.3 Targets of Radiation Interactions 5.1.4 Radiation Effects on DNA 5.1.4.1 DNA Damage 5.1.4.2 DNA Repair Mechanism 5.1.5 Radiation Effects on Cells 5.1.5.1 Cell Killing 5.1.5.2 Induction of Mutations 5.1.5.3 Malignant Transformation of Cells 5.2 Risk Assessment of Radiation Exposure 5.2.1 Cancer Risk Estimation for Human Radiation Exposure 5.2.2 Calculation of Dose 5.2.2.1 The Absorbed Dose 5.2.2.2 The Equivalent Dose 5.2.2.3 The Effective Dose 5.2.2.4 The Collective Dose 5.2.3 Dose Response Relationships 5.2.4 Relation Between Cancer by Natural Incidence and Radiation Induced Cancer 5.2.5 Cancer Risk Estimation in BEIR V and BEIR VII 5.2.5.1 BEIR V Results 5.2.5.2 BEIR VII Results 5.2.5.3 Comparisons of the Estimated Cancer Risk Coefficients 5.3 Development of Standards for Radiation Protection 5.4 Radiation Safety Applications 5.5 Conclusion Homework Further Reading References Chapter 6: Generation of Nuclear Waste from Nuclear Power 6.1 Overview of Nuclear Fuel Cycle 6.2 The Steps in Nuclear Fuel Cycle 6.2.1 Mining 6.2.2 Milling 6.2.3 Conversion 6.2.4 Enrichment 6.2.5 Fuel Fabrication 6.2.6 Nuclear Reactor Operations 6.2.6.1 In-Core Fuel Management 6.2.6.2 Production of Radioactivity from Reactor Operation 6.2.7 Reprocessing 6.3 Material Balance in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle 6.4 Waste Generation and Release of Radioactivity from the Nuclear Fuel Cycle 6.4.1 Wastes from the Front-End of Nuclear Fuel Cycle 6.4.2 Wastes from Reactor Operation 6.4.3 Wastes from Reprocessing 6.4.4 Classification of Radioactive Waste 6.4.5 Overall Radiation Exposure from Nuclear Fuel Cycles 6.5 Conclusion Homework Further Reading References Chapter 7: Characteristics of Spent Fuel and Its Storage and Transportation 7.1 Characteristics of Spent Fuel 7.1.1 General Characteristics of Spent Fuel 7.1.2 Nuclide Compositions of Spent Fuel 7.1.3 Determining Nuclide Concentrations in Spent Fuel 7.1.4 Decay Heat Production in Spent Fuel 7.1.4.1 Decay Heat Calculation 7.1.4.2 Correlation Models for Decay Heat Calculation 7.2 Shielding for Spent Nuclear Fuel 7.2.1 Analysis for Gamma Ray Shielding 7.2.2 Analysis for Neutron Shielding 7.2.3 An Example of Spent Fuel Shielding 7.2.4 Major Radionuclides of Concern in Spent Fuel Shielding 7.3 Criticality Control in Spent Fuel Management 7.4 Storage of Spent Fuel 7.4.1 Wet Storage 7.4.2 Dry Storage 7.4.2.1 Options in Dry Storage 7.4.2.2 Cost of Dry Storage Options 7.4.2.3 The Issue of Storage Periods 7.4.3 Monitored Retrievable Storage (MRS) 7.5 Spent Fuel Transportation 7.5.1 Shipping Casks 7.5.2 Safety in Spent Fuel Shipment 7.5.2.1 Risk from Incident-Free Shipment 7.5.2.2 Risk from Accident During Shipment 7.6 Conclusion Homework Further Reading References Chapter 8: Spent Fuel Reprocessing and Nuclear Waste Transmutation 8.1 Overview of Reprocessing 8.1.1 Aqueous Processes 8.1.2 Pyro-processes 8.1.3 History of Spent Fuel Reprocessing 8.1.4 Comparison of PUREX and Pyroprocessing 8.2 PUREX 8.2.1 The Overall PUREX Process 8.2.2 Pre-processing Storage 8.2.3 Head-end Process 8.2.4 Separation Processes 8.2.5 Off-gas Treatment 8.2.6 Implementation of PUREX 8.2.7 Treatment of HLW for Stabilization 8.2.7.1 Calcination 8.2.7.2 Vitrification 8.2.8 Modifications of PUREX 8.3 Pyroprocessing 8.3.1 Electrochemical Cell as the Separation System 8.3.2 Head-end Process and Oxide Reduction 8.3.3 Electrorefining 8.3.4 Cathode Processing and Waste Treatment 8.4 Transmutation 8.4.1 Transmutation Half-life 8.4.2 Implementation of Transmutation 8.4.2.1 Thermal Reactors 8.4.2.2 Fast Reactors 8.4.2.3 Mixed-spectrum Reactor Concept 8.4.2.4 Accelerator Driven Transmutation Systems 8.4.3 Perspectives on Transmutation 8.5 Conclusion Homework Further Reading References Chapter 9: Engineered Barriers for Nuclear Waste Management 9.1 Basics of Engineering Materials 9.1.1 Introduction to Materials for Engineering Applications 9.1.2 Overview of Materials Properties 9.1.2.1 Mechanical Properties 9.1.2.2 Physical Properties 9.1.2.3 Chemical Properties 9.1.3 Atomic Bonding and Material Properties 9.1.4 Atomic Arrangement and Material Properties 9.1.4.1 Crystal Structures and Material Properties 9.1.4.2 Non-crystalline vs. Crystalline Solids 9.1.4.3 Treatments of Metals for Property Modification 9.1.5 Radiation Effects on Materials 9.1.5.1 Effects of Low LET Radiation 9.1.5.2 Effects of High LET Radiation 9.1.5.3 Effects on Gases or Liquids 9.2 Nuclear Waste Package as Engineered Barriers 9.2.1 Design of Nuclear Waste Package 9.2.2 Predictability of Materials Performance for the Nuclear Waste Package 9.2.2.1 Mechanistic Model Development 9.2.2.2 Characterization of the Environment 9.2.3 Fabrication and Monitoring of Nuclear Waste Package 9.3 Spent Fuel as Waste Form 9.3.1 Irradiation Induced Changes in UO2 9.3.2 Irradiation-Induced Changes in the Cladding 9.3.3 Radionuclide Release from Spent Fuel 9.4 Materials for Waste Immobilization 9.4.1 Glass 9.4.1.1 Characteristics of Glass as Waste Form 9.4.1.2 Compositions of Glass as Waste Form 9.4.1.3 Stability of Glass as Waste Form 9.4.2 Ceramic 9.4.2.1 Compositions of Ceramics as Waste Form 9.4.2.2 Stability of Ceramics as Waste Form 9.4.3 Cement 9.4.3.1 Characteristics of Cement as Waste Form 9.4.3.2 Compositions of Cement as Waste Form 9.4.3.3 Stability of Cement as Waste Form 9.4.4 Polymers 9.4.4.1 Characteristics of Polymers as Waste Form 9.4.4.2 Compositions of Polymers as Waste Form 9.4.4.3 Stability of Polymers as Waste Form 9.4.5 Comparisons of Materials for Waste Immobilization 9.4.6 Modeling Waste Form Leaching 9.4.6.1 Release by Diffusion 9.4.6.2 Release by Dissolution 9.5 Corrosion of Metals 9.5.1 Basic Understanding of Corrosion 9.5.1.1 Corrosion Cell 9.5.1.2 Passivity 9.5.1.3 Pourbaix (Eh-pH) Diagrams 9.5.2 Uniform Corrosion 9.5.2.1 The Pilling-Bedworth Ratio 9.5.2.2 Quantitative Description of Oxide Product Development Under Uniform Corrosion 9.5.3 Localized Corrosion 9.5.3.1 Pitting Corrosion and Crevice Corrosion 9.5.3.2 Intergranular Corrosion 9.5.4 Environment Assisted Cracking - Stress Corrosion Cracking 9.5.5 Galvanic Corrosion 9.5.6 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 9.6 Candidate Materials for Waste Containers 9.6.1 Carbon Steel 9.6.1.1 Types and Use of Carbon Steel 9.6.1.2 Chemical Degradation Characteristics of Carbon Steel 9.6.2 Stainless Steel 9.6.2.1 Types and Uses of Stainless Steels 9.6.2.2 Chemical Degradation Characteristics of Stainless Steels 9.6.3 Copper 9.6.3.1 Types and Uses of Copper 9.6.3.2 Chemical Degradation Characteristics of Copper 9.6.4 Titanium Alloys 9.6.4.1 Types and Uses of Titanium Alloys 9.6.4.2 Chemical Degradation Characteristics of Titanium Alloys 9.6.5 Nickel-Based Alloys 9.6.5.1 Types and Uses of Nickel-Based Alloys 9.6.5.2 Chemical Degradation Characteristics of Nickel-Based Alloys 9.7 Backfills and Seals 9.7.1 Bentonite Clay in Water Saturated Repository 9.7.2 Backfills in Water Unsaturated Repository 9.7.3 Shaft Seals/Grouts 9.8 Conclusion Homework Further Reading References Chapter 10: Geological Barriers for Disposal of Nuclear Waste 10.1 Methods Considered for Permanent Disposition of Nuclear Waste 10.1.1 Disposal in the Ocean 10.1.2 Disposal in Ice Sheets 10.1.3 Disposal in the Space (Extraterrestrial Disposal) 10.1.4 Surface Disposal 10.1.5 Disposal in Geological Formations 10.1.5.1 Deep Boreholes 10.1.5.2 Deep Well Injection 10.1.5.3 Injection Through Rock Melting 10.1.5.4 Geologic Disposal on Small, Uninhabited Islands 10.1.5.5 Mined Geological Repositories 10.2 Host Medium of Geological Disposal 10.2.1 Rock-Forming Minerals 10.2.1.1 Silicate Minerals 10.2.1.2 Clay Minerals 10.2.1.3 Other Minerals 10.2.2 Formation and Properties of Rocks 10.2.2.1 Rock Types 10.2.2.2 Chemical Properties of Rocks 10.2.2.3 Physical Properties of Rock 10.3 Candidate Rock Types for Geological Repository 10.3.1 Granite 10.3.2 Salt 10.3.3 Clay/Shale 10.3.4 Basalt 10.3.5 Tuff 10.3.6 Comparisons of Rocks 10.4 Development of Geological Repository 10.4.1 Site Evaluation 10.4.2 Site Selection 10.4.3 Site Characterization 10.4.4 Facility Construction 10.4.5 Facility Operation and Site Closure 10.4.6 Post-closure Period 10.5 Consideration of Thermal Limits in Geological Repository Design 10.5.1 Thermal Design Limits 10.5.2 Implementation of Thermal Design Limits 10.6 Status of Geological Repository Development 10.7 Conclusion Homework Further Reading References Chapter 11: Movements of Radionuclides in Groundwater 11.1 Groundwater System 11.1.1 Groundwater as Water Body in Hydrologic Cycle 11.1.2 Groundwater Systems 11.2 Describing Groundwater Flow 11.2.1 Hydraulic Head and Direction of Groundwater Movement 11.2.1.1 Hydraulic Head 11.2.2 Darcy´s Law 11.2.3 Hydraulic Conductivity 11.2.4 Physical Properties of Soil 11.2.5 Hydraulic Head Mapping Using Field Measurements 11.2.6 Estimating Hydraulic Head Distributions Using Groundwater Flow Equation 11.2.7 Homogeneity and Isotropy of Aquifer 11.2.8 Flow Lines and Flow Nets 11.2.8.1 Calculation of Transmissivity Distributions in a Stream Tube 11.2.8.2 Calculation of Travel Time 11.2.8.3 Calculation of Flow in a Flow Net 11.2.9 Groundwater Flow in Fractured Rock 11.2.10 Groundwater Flow in the Unsaturated Zone 11.2.10.1 Physical and Hydrological Properties of the Unsaturated Zone 11.2.10.2 Modeling Groundwater Flow in the Unsaturated Zone 11.2.10.3 Steady Infiltration Case 11.2.10.4 Approximate Approaches to Quantify Hydraulic Conductivity and Moisture Content Soil Moisture Contents Hydraulic Conductivity 11.3 Modeling Transport of Radionuclides in Groundwater 11.3.1 Drivers of Contaminant Transport in Groundwater 11.3.2 The Concept of Hydrodynamic Dispersion 11.3.3 Modeling Contaminant Transport in Groundwater: No Chemical Reactions Involved 11.3.3.1 Coefficient of Hydrodynamic Dispersion 11.3.3.2 Molecular Diffusion Coefficient 11.3.3.3 The Behavior of Hydrodynamic Dispersion of Contaminant 11.3.3.4 Dispersivity (Dynamic Dispersivity) 11.3.3.5 Relative Importance of Molecular Diffusion and Mechanical Mixing 11.3.4 Analytical Solutions of Contaminant Transport Equation 11.3.4.1 Case 1: Pulse Injection of a Contaminant into an Infinite, Homogeneous Column of Porous Material 11.3.4.2 Case 2: Movement of Concentration Front in an Infinite Column from a Continuous Source (Steady State Flow) 11.3.5 Modeling Contaminant Transport in Groundwater with Chemical Reactions 11.3.6 Use of Kd for Modeling Sorption in Contaminant Transport 11.3.6.1 Sorption Isotherm Approaches 11.3.6.2 Measurement of Kd 11.3.6.3 Other Considerations in the Use of Kd 11.3.7 General Analytical Solutions for Contaminant Transport Equation 11.4 Effects of Geochemistry on the Migration of Radionuclide in Groundwater 11.4.1 Effect of Chemistry in Near-Field and Far-Field 11.4.2 Solubility 11.4.3 Distribution Coefficients (Kd) 11.5 Conclusion Homework Further Reading References Chapter 12: Performance Assessment of Geological Repository 12.1 Definition of Performance Assessment 12.1.1 Meaning of Performance in Performance Assessment 12.1.2 Model Development for Performance Assessment 12.1.2.1 Models for Infiltration Analysis 12.1.2.2 Models for Engineered Barrier Analysis 12.1.2.3 Models for Source Term Analysis 12.1.2.4 Models for Groundwater Flow and Radionuclide Transport 12.1.2.5 Models for Dose Analysis 12.2 Steps in Performance Assessment 12.2.1 Scenario Development 12.2.2 Performing Integrated Analysis for Repository Performance 12.2.3 Evaluation of Uncertainty in Models and Parameters 12.2.3.1 Model Uncertainty 12.2.3.2 Parameter Uncertainty 12.2.3.3 Monte Carlo Method 12.2.4 General Framework of for Uncertainty Analysis 12.3 A Simplified Performance Assessment 12.3.1 Source Term Model 12.3.1.1 Spent Fuel (SF) Waste Form 12.3.1.2 Glass Waste Form 12.3.1.3 Ceramic Waste Form 12.3.1.4 Metallic Waste Form 12.3.1.5 Release from Waste Form to a Waste Package 12.3.2 Unsaturated Zone Transport 12.3.3 Saturated Zone Transport 12.3.4 Calculation of Human Dose 12.4 Results of Performance Assessment: Examples 12.4.1 Comparison of Sites in the U.S. Through Generic Performance Assessment 12.4.2 Results of Performance Assessment for the Yucca Mountain Repository 12.4.2.1 Scenarios Analyzed 12.4.2.2 Results from Site Viability Assessment The Base Case - Groundwater Induced Release Disruptive Event Scenarios 12.4.2.3 Results from the Final Environmental Impact Analysis for the Yucca Mountain Repository The Base Case: Groundwater-Induced Impacts 12.4.3 Results of Performance Assessment from Select Countries 12.5 Natural Analogues 12.5.1 Need for Natural Analogues 12.5.2 Natural Analogues for Waste Forms, Metallic Containers, and Backfills 12.5.2.1 Glass 12.5.2.2 Cementitious Materials 12.5.2.3 Metallic Containers 12.5.2.4 Bentonite Backfill 12.5.3 Natural Analogues for Spent Fuel Disposal or Radionuclides Transport 12.5.3.1 Oklo Mine 12.5.3.2 Cigar Lake 12.5.3.3 Alligator Rivers 12.5.3.4 Pocos de Caldas 12.5.3.5 Other Natural Analogues 12.5.4 Cautions in the Use of Natural Analogues 12.6 Conclusion Homework Further Reading References Chapter 13: Management of Low and Intermediate Level Waste 13.1 Brief History of Low and Intermediate Level Waste Management in the U.S. 13.2 Generation of Low and Intermediate Level Waste 13.2.1 Low and Intermediate Level Waste from Nuclear Power Plants 13.2.2 Low and Intermediate Level Waste from Other Nuclear Fuel Cycle Facilities 13.2.3 Low and Intermediate Level Waste from Industrial and Institutional Activities 13.3 Characterization of Low and Intermediate Level Waste 13.3.1 Sampling for Waste Characterization 13.3.2 Analysis of the Samples 13.3.3 Use of Scaling Factors 13.3.4 Dose Rate Measurements 13.4 Classification of Low and Intermediate Level Waste 13.4.1 The European Approaches to Waste Classification 13.4.2 The U.S. Approaches to Waste Classification 13.5 Treatment/Processing of Low and Intermediate Level Waste 13.5.1 Transfer Technologies 13.5.2 Concentration Technologies 13.5.3 Transformation Technologies 13.5.4 Conditioning Technologies 13.6 Packaging of Low and Intermediate Level Waste 13.7 Disposal of Low and Intermediate Level Waste 13.7.1 Disposal Methods for Low and Intermediate Level Waste 13.7.2 Performance Assessment of Low and Intermediate Level Waste Disposal Facility 13.7.3 Cost of Low and Intermediate Level Waste Disposal 13.8 Mixed Waste 13.9 Conclusion Homework Further Reading References Chapter 14: Decommissioning a Nuclear Power Plant 14.1 Options for Decommissioning of a Nuclear Power Plant 14.2 Radionuclides of Concern in Decommissioning 14.3 Steps in Nuclear Power Plant Decommissioning 14.3.1 Transition Phase 14.3.2 Characterization and Survey 14.3.2.1 Types of Surveys/Characterization 14.3.2.2 Design of Surveys and Sampling 14.3.3 Segmentation and Dismantling 14.3.4 Decontamination and Remediation 14.3.4.1 Chemical Decontamination 14.3.4.2 Mechanical Decontamination 14.3.4.3 Remediation of Contaminated Soils and Groundwater 14.3.5 Waste Management in Decommissioning 14.3.6 Final Site Characterization and Environmental Monitoring 14.3.6.1 Determination of the Acceptable Level of Residual Contamination 14.3.6.2 Residual Contamination Measurements 14.3.6.3 Compliance Determination 14.4 Policy Issues in Decommissioning 14.4.1 Historical Trends in Nuclear Shutdowns 14.4.2 Selection of Nuclear Decommissioning Strategies 14.4.2.1 Selection of Decommissioning Options 14.4.2.2 Selection of the End-State of Decommissioning 14.4.3 Examples of Nuclear Decommissioning in the U.S. 14.5 Conclusion Homework Further Reading References Chapter 15: Cross-Cutting Systems Issues: Economics, Nuclear Nonproliferation and Security 15.1 Economics of Nuclear Fuel Cycles 15.1.1 The Concepts and Implications of Spent Fuel Recycling 15.1.1.1 Fuel Cycles Concepts Involving Spent Fuel Reprocessing 15.1.1.2 Spent Fuel Recycling without Reprocessing 15.1.1.3 Fast Reactors for Spent Fuel Recycling 15.1.1.4 Implications of Spent Fuel Reprocessing on Uranium Resource Utilization 15.1.1.5 Implications of Spent Fuel Reprocessing on Repository Space Utilization 15.1.2 Comparison of Economics of Nuclear Fuel Cycles 15.1.2.1 Calculation of the Fuel Cycle Cost 15.1.2.2 Comparison of Fuel Cycles Using Total Electricity Generation Costs 15.2 Nuclear Nonproliferation 15.2.1 Risk of Nuclear Proliferation 15.2.2 Proliferation Resistance of Nuclear Fuel Cycle 15.2.3 International Regime for Nuclear Nonproliferation 15.2.4 Principles of Nuclear Safeguards 15.2.5 Nuclear Safeguards and Nuclear Waste Management 15.3 Nuclear Security 15.3.1 Basic Concepts of Nuclear Security 15.3.2 International Regime for Nuclear Security 15.3.3 Physical Protection System for Nuclear Facilities 15.4 Role of Policy in National Choices on Reprocessing 15.4.1 Comparison of National Policies on Reprocessing 15.4.2 Determinants for Spent Fuel Reprocessing Policy 15.4.3 Multilateral Approaches to Spent Fuel Reprocessing 15.5 Conclusions Homework Further Reading References Chapter 16: Social Aspects of Nuclear Waste Management 16.1 Social Aspect of Risk of Nuclear Waste 16.2 Psychological Aspects of Risk 16.3 The Concept of Risk Perception 16.4 Human Cognition Toward Risk Attitude 16.4.1 Human Information Processing 16.4.2 Influence of Heuristics and Biases 16.4.3 Influence of Worldviews, Interpersonal Relations and Ethics as Cultural Biases 16.4.3.1 Influence of Worldview 16.4.3.2 Influence of Worldview Through Interpersonal Relations 16.4.3.3 Influence of Ethics 16.5 Challenges of Risk Communication 16.5.1 Understanding the Differences Between Experts and the Public 16.5.1.1 Risk Information Gap Between Experts and the Public 16.5.1.2 Differences in the Way of Thinking Between the Experts and the Public 16.5.2 Difficulties with Science 16.5.3 Issues with the Role of Media 16.6 Conclusions Homework Further Reading References Chapter 17: Addressing Key Challenges in Nuclear Waste Management 17.1 Recognizing Nuclear Waste as a Legitimate Problem to Solve 17.2 Difficulties with Human Institutions in Dealings with the Problem of Nuclear Waste 17.3 Risk Perception of Nuclear Waste 17.4 The Challenge of Long-Term Safety Performance Requirement 17.5 Conclusion Homework Further Reading References Index