Advances in Oil-Water Separation: A Complete Guide for Physical, Chemical, and Biochemical Processes

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Advances in Oil-Water Separation: A Complete Guide for Physical, Chemical, and Biochemical Processes discusses a broad variety of chemical, physical and biochemical processes, including skimming, membrane separation, adsorption, onsite chemical reactions, burning and usage of suitable microbial strains for onsite degradation of oil. It critically reviews all current developments in oil-water separation processes and technologies, identifies gaps and illuminates the scope for future research and development in the field.  This book provides researchers, engineers and environmental professionals working in oil recovery and storage with solutions for disposal of waste oil and separation of oil from water in a sustainable, environmentally-friendly way. As the book provides a complete state-of-art overview on oil-water separation technologies, it will also ease literature searches on oil-water separation technologies. Front Cover Advances in Oil-Water Separation Copyright Page Contents List of contributors A. Overview on oil pollution and its effect on environment 1 An overview of oil pollution and oil-spilling incidents 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Oil spill incidents 1.3 Case studies 1.4 Recovery and clean up 1.5 Future predictions 1.6 Summary References 2 Spatiotemporal distribution of oil spill effect in the estuarine terrain of Bhagirathi-Hooghly River, West Bengal, India 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Materials and methods 2.2.1 Study area 2.2.2 Data used 2.3 Methodology 2.3.1 Spatiotemporal analysis in water quality and heavy metal concentration 2.3.2 Heavy metal indices analysis 2.3.2.1 Enrichment factor 2.3.2.2 Contamination factor 2.3.2.3 Pollution load index 2.3.2.4 Degree of contamination 2.3.2.5 Geo accumulation index 2.3.3 Ecological impact through BOPA index 2.4 Result and discussions 2.4.1 Spatiotemporal analysis of water quality parameter 2.4.2 Spatiotemporal analysis of dissolved heavy metal parameter 2.4.3 Changes in the parameter effecting oil spill 2.5 Dissolved heavy metal indices 2.5.1 Enrichment factor 2.5.2 Contamination factor 2.5.3 Pollution load index and degree of contamination 2.5.4 Geo accumulation index 2.5.5 Changes in heavy metal indices 2.5.6 Quantitative variation with increased oil spill 2.5.7 Ecological impacts through BOPA index 2.6 Conclusion and recommendation Acknowledgment References 3 Oil pollution and municipal wastewater treatment: issues and impact 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Methodology 3.2.1 Oil and petroleum sources in wastewater streams 3.3 Treatment methods of wastewater containing oil 3.3.1 Some conventional treatment methods are as follows 3.3.1.1 Floatation 3.3.1.2 Coagulation 3.3.2 Some new methods for the wastewater treatment 3.3.2.1 Membrane separation 3.3.2.2 Biological treatment 3.4 Results 3.4.1 Future perspectives 3.4.1.1 Environmental impact of wastewater containing oil 3.4.1.2 Challenges and issues faced due to oil and municipal solid waste pollutants 3.5 Conclusion Acknowledgements Conflict of interest References 4 An overview of worldwide regulations on oil pollution control 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Maritime effects of oil spillage 4.1.2 Significance of oil pollution control management 4.2 International laws on maritime pollution 4.3 1954–62 Convention and its amendments 4.3.1 Origin and establishment of 1954 convention 4.3.2 1969 and 1971 Amendments 4.4 International conference on marine pollution, 1973 4.4.1 Annex I of the convention consists of the regulations for oil pollution control and prevention which are primarily fo... 4.4.2 Other conventions and instruments on the Regional Basis 4.5 MARPOL Convention—73/78 4.5.1 Annex I 4.5.1.1 Measures to control operational discharge of oils according to annex I 4.5.1.2 Shipboard oil pollution emergency plan 4.5.2 Annex II 4.5.2.1 Main features of annex II of MARPOL 4.5.2.2 Shipboard marine pollution emergency plan for noxious liquid substances 4.5.3 Annex III 4.5.3.1 Main features of annex III of MARPOL 4.5.4 Annex IV 4.5.4.1 Main features of annex IV of MARPOL 4.5.4.2 The revised annex IV 4.5.5 Annex V 4.5.5.1 Legal requirements for the Annex V 4.5.5.2 Restrictions and garbage management 4.5.6 Annex VI 4.5.6.1 Application 4.6 Oil Pollution Act, 1990 4.6.1 Origin of Oil Pollution Act, 1990 4.6.2 Progress of Oil Pollution Act, 1990 in oil pollution control 4.7 Conclusions References 5 Technological aspects of different oil and water separation advanced techniques 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Advanced filtration materials 5.2.1 Metal-based membranes 5.2.2 Polymer-based membranes 5.2.3 Ceramic based membranes 5.3 Advanced absorption based materials 5.4 Sol-gel based materials 5.4.1 Template based materials 5.4.2 Micro nanomaterials 5.4.3 Nanobased materials 5.4.4 Nanocellulose based material 5.5 Conclusion References 6 Impact analysis of oil pollution on environment, marine, and soil communities 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Composition of petroleum hydrocarbon 6.3 Sources and fate of oil spill 6.3.1 Weathering 6.3.2 Evaporation 6.3.3 Oxidation 6.3.4 Biodegradation 6.3.5 Emulsification 6.4 Oil pollution and its impact analysis 6.4.1 Impact on aquatic and terrestrial microbial communities 6.4.2 Impact of oil pollution on fish 6.4.3 Impact on seabird population 6.4.3.1 Toxic effect of oil 6.4.4 Impact on marine mammals and invertebrates 6.4.5 Impact on vegetation 6.4.6 Impact on environment 6.5 Future prospects and conclusion References 7 Impact of oil exploration and spillage on marine environments 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Types of pollution 7.3 Types of oils 7.3.1 Group 1: nonpersistent light oils (gasoline, condensate) 7.3.2 Group 2: persistent light oils (diesel, no. 2 fuel oil, light crudes) 7.3.3 Group 3: medium oils (mostly crude oils, IFO 180) 7.3.4 Group 4: heavy oils (heavy crude oils, No. 6 fuel oil, bunker C) 7.3.5 Group 5: sinking oils (slurry oils, residual oils) 7.4 Causes of oil pollution 7.4.1 Natural cause 7.4.2 Anthropogenic activities 7.4.2.1 Accidental spills 7.4.2.1.1 Storage 7.4.2.1.2 Handling 7.4.2.1.3 Transportation 7.4.2.1.4 Offshore drilling 7.4.2.1.5 Routine maintenance activities 7.4.2.1.6 Road runoff 7.4.2.2 Intentional oil discharges 7.5 Harmful effects of oil pollution 7.5.1 Effects of oil pollution on aquatic ecosystem 7.5.2 Effects on marine flora 7.5.3 Effects on marine fauna 7.5.3.1 Impacts of oil spills on vertebrates 7.5.3.1.1 Fishes 7.5.3.1.2 Birds 7.5.3.1.3 Mammals 7.5.3.2 Impacts of oil spills on invertebrates 7.5.3.2.1 Crustaceans 7.5.3.2.2 Molluscs 7.5.3.2.3 Zooplanktons 7.5.3.3 Effects of oil pollution on wildlife 7.5.3.3.1 Birds 7.5.3.3.2 Marine mammals 7.5.3.3.2.1 Sea turtles 7.5.3.3.2.2 Seals 7.5.3.3.2.3 Polar bear 7.5.3.4 Impact of oil pollution on human health 7.5.3.5 Effect of oil pollution on economy 7.5.3.5.1 Tourism 7.5.3.5.2 Fisheries and mariculture 7.5.3.5.3 Other industries/businesses affected by marine oil spills 7.6 Bioaccumulation and biomagnification: marine chemistry 7.6.1 Toxins in the marine food chain 7.6.2 Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of hydrophobic organic compounds in fish 7.6.3 Biomagnification and bioaccumulation of mercury in an arctic marine food web 7.7 Remedies to cope up with oil pollution 7.7.1 Physical methods 7.7.1.1 Oil blooms 7.7.1.2 Skimmers 7.7.1.3 Sorbents 7.7.1.4 Burning 7.7.2 Chemical treatment 7.7.2.1 Dispersant 7.7.2.2 Hot water and high-pressure washing 7.7.2.3 Chemical stabilization of oil by elastomizers 7.7.3 Bioremediation 7.7.4 Natural recovery 7.8 Conclusion References B. Physical processes 8 Superhydrophobic polymeric adsorbents as an efficient oil separator 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Materials used for oil/water separation 8.2.1 Meshes and membranes for oil/water separation 8.2.1.1 Mechanism of action 8.2.1.2 Functionalization of meshes and membranes 8.2.2 Using inorganic materials 8.2.3 Using organic materials 8.3 Polymer-based adsorbents for oil/water separation 8.3.1 Plastic-based adsorbents 8.3.2 Polyurethane oil sorbents 8.3.3 Polystyrene oil sorbents 8.3.4 Polyethylene and polypropylene based oil sorbents 8.3.5 Oil sorbents based on the methacrylate polymers 8.3.6 Oil sorbents based on the miscellaneous polymers 8.3.7 Aerogels 8.4 Superhydrophobic polymeric adsorbents 8.5 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 9 Oil spill treatment using porous materials 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Materials and characterization 9.3 Discussion 9.4 Conclusion Abbreviations References 10 Nanotechnological advances for oil spill management: removal, recovery and remediation 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Oil pollution 10.3 Nanotechnology driven solutions 10.3.1 Nanosensors 10.3.2 Nanofluids 10.3.3 Nanocomposites 10.3.4 Nanocoating 10.3.5 Nanomembranes 10.3.6 Nanocatalysts 10.4 Conclusions and future perspectives References 11 Carbon nanotube-based oil-water separation 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Carbon nanotube-carbon-based sorbent 11.3 Principles of oil-water separation by carbon nanotube 11.4 Structure and synthesis of carbon nanotube 11.4.1 Structure 11.4.2 Synthesis 11.5 Current applications: carbon nanotube-based oil-water separation 11.6 Future perspective 11.7 Summary References 12 Nanocoated membranes for oil/water separation 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Nanocoated membrane technology 12.2.1 Organic-based membranes 12.2.2 Inorganic-based membranes 12.3 Fundamental principles behind oil/water separation behavior 12.3.1 Superhydrophobic-superoleophilic membrane 12.3.2 Superhydrophilic-superoleophobic membrane 12.3.3 Underwater superoleophobicity membrane 12.4 Current application of membranes in oily wastewater treatment 12.4.1 Zwitterionic membranes 12.4.2 Biomimetic thin membranes 12.5 Morphology and structure 12.5.1 Surface morphology 12.5.2 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 12.5.3 FTIR 12.6 Wetting properties 12.7 Mechanical strength 12.8 Antifouling method 12.9 Separation performance of membranes for the oil-in-water mixture 12.10 Summary 12.11 Future perspective Acknowledgement Conflict of interest References C. Thermo-chemical processes 13 Chemical stabilization of oil by elastomizers 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Characteristics of oil spills 13.2.1 Physical characteristics 13.2.2 Chemical characteristics 13.3 Oil spill stabilization/remediation techniques 13.3.1 Physical stabilization process 13.3.1.1 Booms 13.3.1.2 Fence booms 13.3.1.3 Curtain booms 13.3.1.4 Fire-resistant boom 13.3.1.5 Skimmers 13.3.1.6 Wier skimmers 13.3.1.7 Oleophilic skimmers 13.3.1.8 Suction skimmers 13.3.2 Adsorbent materials 13.3.2.1 Natural organic adsorbents 13.3.2.2 Natural inorganic adsorbents 13.3.2.3 Synthetic adsorbents 13.3.3 Thermal remediation process 13.3.4 Bioremediation method 13.3.5 Oil stabilzation by chemical based elastomizers 13.3.5.1 Dispersants 13.3.5.2 Solidifiers 13.3.5.3 Stabilization by low cost chemical stabilizers/surfactants 13.4 Future perspective for oil stabilization through chemical process 13.5 Conclusions References 14 Advances in burning process and their impact on the environment 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Principles 14.2.1 In situ burning operation 14.2.1.1 Ignition requirement 14.2.1.2 Rate of heat transfer 14.2.1.3 Flame temperature 14.2.1.4 Thickness of oil slick 14.2.1.5 Final stage of burning 14.2.2 Factors affecting in situ burning 14.2.2.1 Ignition of oil slick 14.2.2.2 Other factors affecting ignition of oil slick 14.2.2.3 Rate of in situ burning 14.2.2.4 Characteristics of oil slick residue 14.2.2.5 Tendency of flame spreading 14.2.2.6 Flame heights 14.2.2.7 Impact of emulsification 14.2.2.8 In situ burning best safety practices 14.3 In situ burningtechniques & current application 14.3.1 Selection of in situ burning equipment and operation 14.3.1.1 In situ burning without containment 14.3.1.2 Oil containment methods 14.3.1.2.1 Conventional booms 14.3.1.2.2 Fire-resistant booms 14.3.1.2.3 Backup booms 14.3.2 Ignitors 14.3.2.1 Helitorches 14.3.2.2 Noncommercial ignitors 14.3.2.2.1 The kontax igniter 14.3.2.2.2 A hand-held igniter 14.3.3 Treating agents and combustion additives 14.4 Environmental and health concerns 14.4.1 Air quality 14.4.2 Water quality 14.5 Summary References 15 Use of chemical dispersants for management of oil pollution 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Hazardous effect of oil spill and its emission 15.2.1 Need for controlling oil pollution 15.2.2 Oil spill remediation 15.3 Use of chemical dispersant 15.4 Principle and mechanism of chemical dispersants 15.4.1 Impact of chemical dispersants 15.4.2 Toxicity of chemical dispersants 15.5 Effectiveness and adaptability of chemical dispersants 15.6 National and international regulations for using chemical dispersants 15.7 Applications of different chemical dispersants 15.8 Conclusions References 16 Brief account on the thermochemical oil-spill management strategies 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Major oil spills incidents 16.2.1 Exxon Valdez oil spill (1989), and Amoco Cadiz oil spill (1978) 16.2.2 Deepwater horizon oil spill 16.3 Oil spill treating methods 16.3.1 Physical remediation methods 16.3.2 In situ burning 16.3.3 Bioremediation 16.3.4 Chemical methods 16.4 Emulsifying agents 16.5 Impact of emulsion on ecosystem 16.6 Conclusion References D. Biological processes 17 Use of live microbes for oil degradation in situ 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Bioremediation of oil compounds by bacteria 17.3 Role of bacterial oxygenases in the oil biodegradation 17.4 Oil-degrading fungi 17.5 Marine fungi 17.6 Soil fungi 17.7 Mycorrhizal fungi 17.8 White rot fungi 17.9 Fungal enzymes in bioremediation 17.10 In situ—mycoremediation 17.11 Bioaugmentation 17.12 Fungi bacteria consortium 17.13 Biostimulation 17.14 Biodegradation of crude oil by fresh algae 17.15 Effect of seaweeds (marine algae) in biodegradation 17.16 Cyanobacteria 17.17 Algal bacteria consortium 17.18 Factor affecting in biodegradations 17.19 Summary References 18 Metagenomics—an approach for selection of oil degrading microbes and its application in remediation of oil pollution 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Microbes associated with degradation of oil 18.3 Metagenomics in oil degradation 18.3.1 Sampling 18.3.2 Isolation of genome 18.3.3 Modeling 16S rRNA and 18S rRNA 18.3.4 Amplification by polymerase chain reaction technique 18.3.5 Sequencing 18.3.5.1 Trimming or filtering 18.3.5.1.1 Sequence assembly and validation of assembled sequence 18.3.5.2 Analysis of assembled sequence and genome 18.3.5.2.1 Alignment 18.3.5.2.2 RefSeq 18.3.5.2.3 BioSurfDB 18.3.5.3 Comparison of genome sequences 18.3.5.3.1 Cluster analysis 18.3.5.4 Detection of GC content regions 18.3.5.5 Phylogenetic trees establishment 18.3.5.6 Submission of database 18.3.6 Phylogenetics 18.4 Application 18.5 Metagenomics challenges 18.6 Conclusion References 19 Potentiality of enzymes as a green tool in degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Role of bacteria in enzymatic degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons 19.3 Role of algae in enzymatic degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons 19.4 Role of fungi in enzymatic degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons 19.5 Feasibility and technical applicability of enzymes in oil clean up 19.6 Conclusion Conflict of interest References 20 Bioremediation: an ecofriendly approach for the treatment of oil spills 20.1 Introduction 20.1.1 Oil spills 20.1.1.1 Accidental spills during 20.2 Catastrophe 20.2.1 Hydrocarbon pollution 20.2.1.1 Aliphatic group 20.2.1.2 Aromatic group 20.2.1.3 Heterocyclic group 20.3 An approach to eliminate oil spills 20.3.1 Bioremediation and its techniques 20.3.1.1 Bioaugmentation 20.3.1.2 Biostimulation 20.3.1.3 Biosparging 20.3.1.4 Phytoremediation 20.3.1.5 Landfarming 20.3.1.6 Bioslurping 20.3.1.7 Bioreactor 20.4 Factors affecting the biodegradation efficiency 20.4.1 Nutrient availability 20.4.2 Temperature 20.4.3 Oxygen limitations 20.4.4 pH 20.4.5 Bioavailability of hydrocarbon 20.4.6 Restriction of physical contact between microorganism and oil spills 20.5 Role of microorganism 20.6 Novel approaches 20.6.1 Substance addition 20.6.2 Genetic engineering 20.7 Case studies 20.8 Conclusion and future prospects References 21 Bioremediation of black tides: strategies involving genetically modified organisms 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Conventional bioremediation strategies and their limitations 21.2.1 Physical methods 21.2.2 Chemical methods 21.2.3 Thermal method 21.3 Switch to biological methods-“bioremediation” 21.3.1 Bioaugmentation 21.3.2 Biostimulation 21.3.3 Biosparging 21.3.4 Phytoremediation 21.3.5 The oil eating microbes 21.4 Genetically engineered organisms (GMOS): an in situ bioremediation approach 21.4.1 Current applications of potential GEMs for bioremediation of oil contaminants 21.4.1.1 Genetically modified organisms in phytoremediation 21.4.1.2 Genetically engineered fungi for mycoremediation 21.4.2 Technical applicability of GEMs in oil cleanup 21.4.2.1 Construction of hybrid pathways through genetic engineering for degradation of oil contaminants 21.4.2.2 Use of DNA probes and biosensors for oil pollutant detection 21.4.2.3 Use of biosurfactants to increase bioavailability of oil contaminants 21.5 Conclusion References 22 Microbes and marine oil spills: oil-eating bugs can cure oily sea sickness 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Composition of petroleum hydrocarbons 22.3 Impact of oil pollution on marine ecosystem 22.3.1 Sources of oil pollution in marine and coastal environment 22.3.2 Fate of oil contaminants in marine ecosystems 22.3.3 Toxicity and hazardous consequences 22.4 Occurrence and distribution of oil degrading microbial communities 22.5 Metabolic versatilities for oil degradation by microbes 22.5.1 Aerobic degradation 22.5.2 Anaerobic degradation 22.5.3 Enzymes involved in PH degradation 22.6 Factors influencing microbial remediation of oil 22.6.1 Temperature 22.6.2 pH 22.6.3 Salinity and pressure 22.6.4 Oxygen 22.6.5 Composition and properties of substrates 22.6.6 Nutrients availability 22.6.7 Microbial communities 22.6.8 Bioavailability 22.7 Bioremediation/biodegradation strategies for removal of oil from contaminated sites 22.7.1 Principles and or strategies for PH bioremediation 22.7.2 Applications 22.7.2.1 Applying indigenous individual and/or microbial consortium (bioaugmentation) 22.7.2.2 Application of genetically engineered strains 22.7.2.3 Enrichment of the nutrients (biostimulation) 22.7.2.4 Use of immobilized cells 22.7.2.5 Applications of biosurfactants 22.8 Conclusions 22.9 Summary References 23 Hybrid biological processes for the treatment of oily wastewater 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Methods for oily wastewater treatment 23.3 Biological methods 23.3.1 Microbe isolation 23.3.2 Analysis of microbial community composition 23.3.3 Microbes for degradation of oily wastewater 23.3.4 Biodegradation systems: free cell, immobilized and continuous bioreactor 23.3.5 Mechanism and kinetics 23.3.6 Effect of oil toxicity on degradation 23.4 Biological techniques 23.5 Hybrid biological processes 23.6 Summary References E. Miscellaneous 24 Efficient management of oil waste: chemical and physicochemical approaches Body 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Hazardous effect of waste oil 24.2.1 Soil 24.2.2 Water 24.2.3 Air 24.3 Chemical constituents of waste oil 24.3.1 Waste cooking oil 24.3.2 Waste lubricating oil 24.4 Recycling methods of waste oil 24.4.1 Physical treatment of waste oil (2–7) 24.4.1.1 Solvent extraction 24.4.1.2 Filtration 24.4.1.3 Distillation 24.4.2 Chemical treatment of waste oil 24.4.2.1 Transesterification 24.4.2.2 Hydrotreating 24.4.2.3 Gasification 24.4.2.4 Pyrolysis 24.4.2.4.1 Conventional pyrolysis of waste oil 24.4.2.4.2 Microwave pyrolysis 24.4.2.5 Incineration 24.5 Recycling products 24.5.1 Plasticizers 24.5.2 Biofuel 24.5.3 Animal feedstuff 24.5.4 Polymer 24.5.5 Converting waste lubricating oil into useable oil 24.6 Conclusion and future prospect References 25 Membrane bioreactors for the treatment of oily wastewater: pros and cons 25.1 Oily wastewater: the origin and global trend 25.2 Oily wastewater: environmental impact 25.3 Existing oily wastewater treatment technologies 25.3.1 Application of membrane bioreactor as the advanced treatment technology 25.3.2 Membrane bioreactor for the treatment of oily wastewater 25.3.3 Fouling as the main drawback of membrane bioreactor treating oily wastewater 25.3.4 Methods for fouling mitigation treating oily wastewater 25.4 Conclusions References 26 Overview on natural materials for oil water separation 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Sources of oil/water mixtures 26.3 Composition of oil/water mixtures 26.3.1 Chemical composition 26.3.2 Physical properties of oily wastewater 26.4 Major processes of oil/water separation 26.4.1 Physical-mechanical methods 26.4.1.1 Sedimentation 26.4.1.2 Dissolved air floatation 26.4.1.3 Coagulation-flocculation 26.4.1.4 Sorption 26.4.1.5 Mechanical containment 26.4.1.6 Thermal and electrical treatment 26.4.1.7 Filtration 26.4.2 Chemical methods 26.4.2.1 Chemical precipitation 26.4.2.2 Dispersants and solidifiers 26.4.2.3 Chemical oxidation 26.4.3 Biological treatment 26.4.3.1 Aerobic methods 26.4.3.2 Anaerobic methods 26.5 Natural materials: an alternative 26.5.1 Sorbent materials 26.5.2 Particles 26.5.3 Surfactants 26.5.4 Aerogels 26.6 Promising natural materials for oil/water separation 26.6.1 Kapok fibers 26.6.2 Rice husk/straw 26.6.3 Vegetable residue wastes 26.6.4 Nutshells 26.6.5 Wood sheets 26.6.6 Barley straw 26.6.7 Cotton fiber 26.6.8 Sugarcane bagasse 26.7 Conclusion and further prospects Acknowledgment References Further reading 27 Extraction and separation of oils: the journey from distillation to pervaporation 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Techniques in the extraction of oils 27.2.1 Mechanical extraction of oils 27.2.2 Steam and hydrodistillation 27.2.3 Chemical extraction of oils 27.2.3.1 Soxhlet extraction 27.2.3.2 Supercritical fluid extraction 27.2.4 Ultrasound and microwave-assisted extraction 27.2.5 Optimizing the extraction process 27.3 Emulsification/formation of emulsions 27.3.1 Types of emulsions 27.3.2 Properties relating to emulsions and emulsifiers 27.4 Oil-water separation or demulsification 27.4.1 Chemical demulsification 27.4.2 Biological demulsification 27.4.3 Thermal demulsification 27.4.4 Microwave demulsification 27.4.5 Electrical demulsification 27.4.6 Ultrasonic demulsification 27.4.7 Mechanical demulsification 27.4.8 Membrane demulsification 27.4.9 Pervaporation 27.5 Conclusion Acknowledgment References Index Back Cover