Yoga in Transformation : Historical and Contemporary Perspectives

Description

This volume explores aspects of yoga over a period of about 2500 years. In its first part, it investigates facets of the South Asian and Tibetan traditions of yoga, such as the evolution of posture practice, the relationship between yoga and sex, yoga in the theistic context, the influence of Buddhism on early yoga, and the encounter of Islam with classical yoga. The second part addresses aspects of modern globalised yoga and its historical formation, as for example the emergence of yoga in Viennese occultism, the integration of yoga and nature cure in modern India, the eventisation of yoga in a global setting, and the development of Patañjali s iconography. In keeping with the current trend in yoga studies, the emphasis of the volume is on the practice of yoga and its theoretical underpinnings. Karl Baier / Philipp A. Maas / Karin Preisendanz: Introduction Body 1. Context, Scope and Structure of the Present Volume 2. Synopsis of Part A: “Yoga in South Asia and Tibet” 3. Synopsis of Part B: “Globalised Yoga” 4. Acknowledgements Part A. Yoga in South Asia and Tibet Chapter 1 Some Problematic Yoga Sūtra-s and Their Buddhist Background Dominik Wujastyk: Chapter 1: Some Problematic Yoga Sūtra-s and Their Buddhist Background 1. Introduction 1.1. Émile Senart 1.2. Louis de La Vallée Poussin 1.3. Mircea Eliade 2. Three Sūtra-s Examined 2.1. Samādhipāda 11: anubhūtaviṣayāsaṃpramoṣaḥ smṛtiḥ 2.2. Sādhanapāda 46–47: sthirasukham āsanam prayatnaśaithilyānanta- samāpattibhyām 2.3. Kaivalyapāda 29: prasaṅkhyāne ’py akusīdasya sarvathāvivekakhyāter dharmameghaḥ samādhiḥ 3. Patañjali’s Use of Vibhāṣā Materials 4. Conclusions References Chapter 2 “Sthirasukham Āsanam”: Posture and Performance in Classical Yoga and Beyond Philipp A. Maas: Chapter 2: “Sthirasukham Āsanam”: Posture and Performance in Classical Yoga and Beyond 1. Introduction 2. Posture as an Ancillary of Yoga 3. Patañjali's Posture Passage 3.1. Grammatical Analyses of the Compound Sthirasukha 3.2. The List of Postures in Pātañjalayogaśāstra 2.46 3.2.1. Patañjali's Posture Passage in Transformation 3.2.2. The Lotus Posture (Padmāsana) 3.2.3. The Good Fortune Posture (Bhadrāsana) 3.2.4. The Hero Posture (Vīrāsana) 3.2.5. The Lucky Mark Posture (Svastikāsana) 3.2.6. The Staff Posture (Daṇḍāsana) 3.2.7. The One with Support (Sopāśraya) 3.2.8. The Couch Posture (Paryaṅkāsana) 3.2.9. Sitting Like a Crane, Sitting Like an Elephant, and Sitting Like a Camel (Krauñcaniṣadana, Hastiniṣadana, and Uṣṭraniṣadana) 3.2.10. The Even Configuration (Samasaṃsthāna) 3.2.11. Steady Relaxation (Sthiraprasrabdhi) 3.2.12. As is Comfortable (Yathāsukha) 3.2.13. Additional Postures 3.3. The Two Means to Achieve Postures 3.3.1. The Slackening of Effort 3.3.2. Merging Meditatively into Infinity, or Meditating on the One who Supports the Earth 3.4. The Result of Posture Performance 4. Conclusions Appendices General Introduction to the Critically Edited Text Passages in Appendices 1, 2 and 3 Abbreviations Used in the Critically Edited Text Passages Appendix 1: A Critical Edition of Patañjali’s Passage on Postures (PYŚ 2.46–48) Appendix 2: A Critical Edition of the Posture Passage of the Pātañjalayogaśāstravivaraṇa (Vivaraṇa 2.46–48) Appendix 3: A Critical Edition of the Posture Passage of the Tattvavaiśāradī (TVai 2.46–48) References Chapter 3 The Proliferation of Āsana-s in Late-Medieval Yoga Texts Jason Birch: Chapter 3: The Proliferation of Āsana-s in Late-Medieval Yoga Texts 1. Introduction 2. The History of Āsana in Haṭha Yoga 3. Three Unpublished Manuscripts 3.1. The Ujjain Manuscript of the Yogacintāmaṇi 3.2. The Haṭhapradīpikā-Siddhāntamuktāvalī 3.3. The Haṭhābhyāsapaddhati 4. Chronology and Increments in the Number of Āsana-s in Medieval Yoga Texts 5. Connections between Medieval and Modern Āsana-s 6. Conclusion Appendix 1: Descriptions of the Additional Āsana-s in the Ujjain Manuscript Appendix 2: One Hundred and twelve Descriptions of Āsana-s in the Haṭhābhyāsapaddhati Appendix 3: A Comparison of Medieval and Modern Āsana-s Abbreviations (Primary Sources) Other Abbreviations and Special Signs References Primary Sources Secondary Sources Chapter 4 Yoga and Sex: What is the Purpose of Vajrolīmudrā? James Mallinson: Chapter 4: Yoga and Sex: What is the Purpose of Vajrolīmudrā? 1. Introduction 2. The Mechanics of Vajrolī 3. Vajrolī in Texts 3.1. Vajrolī and Haṭha Yoga 3.2. Vajrolī and Rāja Yoga 3.3. Vajrolī and Tantra 4. Conclusion Appendix 1: Text Passages Which Teach or Mention Vajrolīmudrā Appendix 2: Editions and Translations of the Descriptions of Vajrolīmudrā in the Bṛhatkhecarīprakāśa and the Vajroliyoga References Primary Sources Secondary Sources Chapter 5 Yoga in the Daily Routine of the Pāñcarātrins Marion Rastelli: Chapter 5: Yoga in the Daily Routine of the Pāñcarātrins 1. Introduction 2. The Time for Practising Yoga 3. The Nature of Yoga in the Context of the Five Time Periods 3.1. Mental Visualisation of God 3.2. Identifying Meditation 4. Yogāṅga-s 5. Tattva Yoga 6. Veṅkaṭanātha 7. Conclusion References Primary Sources Secondary Sources Chapter 6 The Transformation of Yoga in Medieval Maharashtra Catharina Kiehnle: Chapter 6: The Transformation of Yoga in Medieval Maharashtra 1. The Songs 2. The God of the Jñāndev Gāthā 3. The Aim of the Devotees 4. The Means to Reach God 5. The Decline of Nāth Yoga 6. Bhakti Yoga 7. Conclusion References Chapter 7 On al-Bīrūnīʼs Kitāb Pātanğal and the Pātañjalayogaśāstra Philipp A. Maas / Noémie Verdon: Chapter 7: On al-Bīrūnīʼs Kitāb Pātanğal and the Pātañjalayogaśāstra 1. Introduction 1.1. The Life and Work of al-Bīrūnī 1.2. The Kitāb Pātanğal in its Socio-Historical Context 1.3. Al-Bīrūnīʼs Hermeneutic Approach to South Asian Religion and Philosophy 1.4. The Reception History of the Kitāb Pātanğal 2. The Search for the Sanskrit Source of the Kitāb Pātanğal 2.1. Carl Edward Sachau: A Quest in Vain 2.2. Surendra Nath Dasgupta: A Third Patañjali 2.3. Richard Garbe: The Rājamārtaṇḍa of King Bhoja 2.3.1. The Agricultural Example 2.3.2. The Mythological Example 2.4. Jean Filliozat: Al-Bīrūnīʼs Creativity 2.5. Shlomo Pines and Tuvia Gelblum: The Yogasūtra with an Unknown Commentary 2.5.1. The Medical Excursion 2.5.2. The Cosmographical Excursion 2.6. A New Hypothesis: The Pātañjalayogaśāstra 3. The Pātañjalayogaśāstra in Transformation 3.1. Explicitly Mentioned Transformations 3.1.1. Combining Different Layers of Text 3.1.2. Creating a Dialogue 3.1.3. Omitting Linguistic Explanations 3.2. Translational Strategies 3.2.1. Borrowing 3.2.2. Defining the Elements of Culture 3.2.3. Literal Translation 3.2.4. Substitution 3.2.5. Lexical Creation 3.2.6. Omission 3.2.7. Addition 3.3. Results 4. Conclusion References Sanskrit Manuscripts Primary Sources Secondary Sources Chapter 8 Tibetan Yoga: Somatic Practice in Vajrayāna Buddhism and Dzogchen Ian A. Baker: Chapter 8: Tibetan Yoga: Somatic Practice in Vajrayāna Buddhism and Dzogchen 1. Vajrayāna Buddhism 2. Tsa Uma: The Axis of Awareness 3. Trulkhor: Yoga of Breath and Movement 4. Nyingthik: Heart Essence of Tibetan Yoga 5. Korde Rushen: Yoga of Spontaneous Presence 6. Tögal: Yoga of Active Perception 7. Conclusion List of Figures References Part B. Globalised Yoga Chapter 9 Yoga within Viennese Occultism: Carl Kellner and Co. Karl Baier: Chapter 9: Yoga within Viennese Occultism: Carl Kellner and Co. 1. Occultism: A Neglected Dimension of Viennese Modernity 2. Kellner's Bourgeois Secular World 3. Theosophy, Rosicrucianism, and High-degree Freemasonry: Kellner's Bourgeois Occult World 4. Occult Philosophy of Nature: Hartmann, Vivekananda, and Kellner on Ether and Life Force, Ākāśa and Prāṇa 5. Kellner's Encounter with South Asian Yogis and His Essay on Yoga 6. Yoga and Ritual Sex within the Inner Occult Circle and the Early O.T.O. 7. A Mystical Ascension within the Pleasure Gardens: The Manuscript “Reincarnation” 8. Coda: Herbert Silberer's Theory of Mysticism References Chapter 10 Yoga, Nature Cure and “Perfect” Health: The Purity of the Fluid Body in an Impure World Joseph S. Alter: Chapter 10: Yoga, Nature Cure and “Perfect” Health: The Purity of the Fluid Body in an Impure World 1. Introduction 2. Yoga: The Problem of Consciousness and Perfection 3. Nature Cure: Purification and the Perfectibility of Health 4. Healing and Consciousness in Rishikesh: From the Unity of Disease to the Yoga of Synthesis References Chapter 11 Sāṃkhya in Transcultural Interpretation: Shri Anirvan (Śrī Anirvāṇa) and Lizelle Reymond Maya Burger: Chapter 11: Sāṃkhya in Transcultural Interpretation: Shri Anirvan (Śrī Anirvāṇa) and Lizelle Reymond 1. Introduction 2. Two Biographies or Where Two Worldviews Meet 3. Shri Anirvan’s Sāṃkhya Interpretation 4. Prakṛti, Puruṣa and the Void 4.1. Prakṛti 4.2. Puruṣa 4.3. The Void 5. Conclusion References Works by Shri Anirvan Works by Lizelle Reymond Secondary Sources Chapter 12 Christian Responses to Yoga in the Second Half of the Twentieth Century Anand Amaladass: Chapter 12: Christian Responses to Yoga in the Second Half of the Twentieth Century 1. Introduction 2. Diversity of Views on the Relationship Between Yoga and Christianity 2.1. Reservations about the Western Reception of Yoga in General 2.2. Reservations Based on Theological Arguments 3. Positive Responses to Yoga 4. The Impact of Yoga on the Christian World 5. Can Yoga Enrich Non-Asian Religious Practices? 6. Conclusion References Chapter 13 Following the Transcultural Circulation of Bodily Practices: Modern Yoga and the Corporeality of Mantras Beatrix Hauser: Chapter 13: Following the Transcultural Circulation of Bodily Practices: Modern Yoga and the Corporeality of Mantras 1. Introduction 2. Models of Dissemination 3. Fragments of the Anthropology of Globalisation 4. The Contingency of the Body 5. Mantras and Vokalatmung 6. Conclusion References Chapter 14 Living4giving: Politics of Affect and Emotional Regimes in Global Yoga Anne Koch: Chapter 14: Living4giving: Politics of Affect and Emotional Regimes in Global Yoga 1. Introduction 2. Framing Conditions: Eventisation, Charitisation, Mediatisation 3. The Particular Configuration of “Global Yoga” 4. The Emotional Complex of Yoga Aid 4.1. Theoretical Considerations 4.2. The Obligation to Give Back in a Moral Global Economy 4.2.1. Owing – Being Indebted 4.2.2. The Feeling of Meaningfulness: Living4giving 4.2.3. Gratitude 4.2.4. Competing 4.2.5. Connectedness 4.2.6. Self-Empowerment 5. Conclusion: The Cosmopolitan Mood of Living4giving References Chapter 15 Spaces of Yoga: Towards a Non-Essentialist Understanding of Yoga Suzanne Newcombe: Chapter 15: Spaces of Yoga: Towards a Non-Essentialist Understanding of Yoga 1. Introduction 2. The Stage and Yoga Performance 3. Yoga in Schools: Encinitas School District Yoga 4. Mappings of Space: Maps and the Spatial Theory 5. Private Space and the Imagined Yoga Tradition 6. The Studio Space 7. Conclusions References Chapter 16 Nāga, Siddha and Sage: Visions of Patañjali as an Authority on Yoga Gudrun Bühnemann: Chapter 16: Nāga, Siddha and Sage: Visions of Patañjali as an Authority on Yoga 1. Introduction 2. Two-armed Representations of Patañjali in the Tradition of the Naṭarāja Temple at Cidambaram 3. Patañjali as a Four-armed Figure in the Tradition of T. Krishnamacharya 4. Patañjali as a Meditating Sage in the South Indian Siddha Tradition 5. Patañjali Associated with the Syllable Oṃ 6. A Brief Look at Recent Innovative Representations of Patañjali References Primary Sources Secondary Sources Figures Contributors Joseph S. Alter Anand Amaladass Karl Baier Ian A. Baker Jason Birch Gudrun Bühnemann Maya Burger Beatrix Hauser Catharina Kiehnle Anne Koch Philipp A. Maas James Mallinson Suzanne Newcombe Marion Rastelli Noémie Verdon Dominik Wujastyk